1) Kingdom Monera is considered as the most primitive group of organisms and monerans are most abundant of all. It generally comprises unicellular organisms with a prokaryotic cell organization. They lack well-defined cell structures including the nucleus and other cell organelles.

They consist of prokaryotes which include species like the Cyanobacteria, archaebacteria, mycoplasma, and bacteria are a few members of this kingdom.

2) All unicellular eukaryotic organisms are placed under the Kingdom Protista.

The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in the year 1886. This kingdom forms a link between other kingdoms of fungi, plants, and animals.

Kingdom Protista is an important phase in early evolution and the very first protist probably evolved 1.7 billion years ago.

Kingdom Protista is a very large group comprising of at least 16 phyla. Many species of this kingdom are the primary producers in the aquatic ecosystem and some are responsible for serious human diseases like malaria.

Golgi apparatus is a complex cytoplasmic structure made up of smooth membrane saccules or cisternae, a network of tubules with vesicles and vacuoles, which takes part in membrane transformation, secretion, and production of complex biochemicals. The shape and size of Golgi body are not fixed. They depend upon the physiological state of the cells. Usually the Golgi body is made up of four parts - cisternae, tubules, vesicles, and vacuoles.

1. Cisternae: Golgi body consists of a stack of generally 4-8 membrane-bound saccules or cisternae. The saccules are freq curved to give a definite polarity to the Golgi body. One face of the apparatus is convex while the other is concave.
2. Tubules: They form a complicated network towards the periphery and maturing face of the apparatus. Actually, tubules arise due to fenestrations of the cisternae. They have a diameter of 30-50 nm. The tubules interconnect the different cisternae.
3. Vesicles: They are small sacs of 20-80 nm diameters. The vesicles are found attached to the tips of tubules at various levels in the network. They are of two types, smooth and coated.
4. Golgian vacuoles: They are expanded parts of the cisternae which have become modified to form vacuoles. The vacuoles develop from the concave or maturing face. Golgian vacuoles contain the amorphous or granular substance. Some of the Golgian vacuole functions as lysosomes.

Functions:

1. All glandular cells depend upon Golgi body for concentrating and packaging their products inside a soluble proteins coat.
2. The Golgi body brings about membrane transformation, that is, converting one type of membrane into other types.
3. Proteins synthesized by the rough endoplasmic reticulum and lipids synthesized by smooth endoplasmic reticulum reach the cisternae of the Golgi body. Here, they combine with carbohydrates to form glycoproteins and glycolipids.

Micturition is the release of urine from urinary bladder through urethra. It is also termed as ‘Urination’. This occurs involuntarily in children upto 4-5 years; thereafter regulated voluntarily.

The DNA structure can be thought of like a twisted ladder. This structure is described as a double-helix, as illustrated in the figure above. It is a nucleic acid, and all nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides. The DNA molecule is composed of units called nucleotides, and each nucleotide is composed of three different components, such as sugar, phosphate groups, and nitrogen bases. 

The basic building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, which are composed of a sugar group, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. The sugar and phosphate groups link the nucleotides together to form each strand of DNA. Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G)  and Cytosine (C) are four types of nitrogen bases.

These 4 Nitrogenous bases pair together in the following way: A with T, and C with G. These base pairs are essential for the DNA’s double helix structure, which resembles a twisted ladder.

The order of the nitrogenous bases determines the genetic code or the DNA’s instructions.

Among the three components of DNA structure, sugar is the one which forms the backbone of the DNA molecule. It is also called deoxyribose. The nitrogenous bases of the opposite strands form hydrogen bonds, forming a ladder-like structure.

The DNA molecule consists of 4 nitrogen bases, namely adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and Guanine (G) which ultimately forms the structure of a nucleotide. The A and G are purines and the C and T are pyrimidines.

The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions. These strands are held together by the hydrogen bond that is present between the two complementary bases. The strands are helically twisted, where each strand forms a right-handed coil and ten nucleotides make up a single turn.

The pitch of each helix is 3.4 nm. Hence, the distance between two consecutive base pairs (i.e., hydrogen-bonded bases of the opposite strands) is 0.34 nm.

The hypothesis that eukaryotic cells evolved from a symbiotic association of prokaryotes—endosymbiosis—is particularly well supported by studies of mitochondria and chloroplasts, which are thought to have evolved from bacteria living in large cells. The endosymbiotic theory explains how eukaryotic cells evolved. The large and small cells formed a symbiotic relationship in which both cells benefited. Some of the small cells were able to break down the large cell's wastes for energy. ... They became the chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells.

Viroids are free RNA molecules of low molecular weight without any protein coat while viruses can have either RNA or DNA molecules encapsulated in a protein coat. Viroids are smaller in size than the viruses. Viroids infect only plants whereas virus infects all types of organisms. In viroids, protein coat is absent whereas in viruses a protein covering or a coat called as capsid is present around the genetic material.

The Watson-Crick Model of DNA (1953) Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is a double-stranded, helical molecule. It consists of two sugar-phosphate backbones on the outside, held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of nitrogenous bases on the inside.

Watson and Crick DNA Model
DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic acid which is a molecule that contains the instructions an organism needs to develop, live and reproduce.
It is a type of nucleic acid and is one of the four major types of macromolecules that are known to be essential for all forms of life.

Mycorrhiza is a mutually beneficial or symbiotic association of fungi Avith roots of higher
plants. Orchids grow as epiphyte on plants, have their roots associated with fungi right from the seedling stage. Many orchids cannot survive without mycorrhizae associations. Many forest trees such as pines appear stunted if mycorrhizal associations are absent. In presence of these associations, these plants absorb 2-3 times more nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus compared to without them.

The digested food is assimilated into the body of the living organisms which is used mainly for two purposes:

1. It is used as a fuel to get energy for various life processes.
2. It is used as a material for the growth and repair of the body.

The process of releasing energy from food is called respiration. It involves taking in oxygen into the cells, using it for releasing energy by burning food, and then eliminating the waste products from the body.

The mechanism by which an organism obtains oxygen from the air and releases carbon dioxide is called breathing.

Difference between breathing and respiration:-

The respiration takes place inside the cells of the body so it is known as cellular respiration. The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used to synthesize a molecule called ATP which is used to fuel all other activities in the cell. In these processes, ATP is broken down giving rise to a fixed amount of energy which can drive the endothermic reactions taking place in the cell.

Diffusion is insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of large multicellular organisms like humans because the volume of human body is so big that the oxygen cannot diffuse into all the cells of the human body quickly and oxygen will have to travel large distances to reach each and every cell of the body.

Large organisms contain a respiratory pigment called haemoglobin which carries the oxygen from the lungs to all the body cells very efficiently.
A terrestrial animal has an advantage over an aquatic animal in regard to obtaining oxygen for respiration that it is surrounded by an oxygen rich atmosphere from where it can take any amount of oxygen.

The aquatic animals use the oxygen dissolved in water to carry out respiration. The terrestrial animals obtain oxygen from air. The rate of breathing in aquatic animals is much faster than terrestrial animals because the amount of oxygen dissolved in water is low as compared to the amount of oxygen dissolved in air.

There are two ways in which glucose is oxidized to provide energy in various organisms:
(i) Anaerobic respiration – The respiration which takes place without oxygen is called anaerobic respiration.
Example: Yeast and some bacteria break down glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxide.

Anaerobic respiration takes place in human muscles during vigorous physical exercise because oxygen gets used up faster in the muscle cells than can be supplied by the blood.

(ii) Aerobic respiration – The respiration which uses oxygen is called aerobic respiration.
Example: Plants and animals break down glucose completely into carbon dioxide and water to release energy.

The end-products of anaerobic respiration in muscles of human beings is lactic acid and in yeast cells, ethanol and carbon dioxide are released. Carbon dioxide and water are released during aerobic respiration. Large amount of energy is released in aerobic respiration as compared to anaerobic respiration.

Difference between aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration:

When you swallow food, it passes from your mouth down into your throat (pharynx). From there, the food moves down through a long tube (the esophagus) and into your stomach. This journey is made possible by a series of actions from the muscles in these areas. Dysphagia happens when there is a disruption in the swallowing process as food and liquids pass through your mouth, throat, and esophagus. 

The pharynx is also part of the system that brings air into your lungs. When you breathe, air enters your mouth and moves into the pharynx. The air then goes down into your main airway (trachea) and into your lungs. A flap of tissue called the epiglottis sits over the top of the trachea. This flap blocks food and drink from going down into the trachea when you swallow. But in some cases, food or drink can enter the trachea causing aspiration. It may go down as you swallow. Or it may come back up from the stomach. A person with dysphagia is much more likely to aspirate.

Dysphagia is more common in older adults. Stroke is a very common cause of both dysphagia and aspiration. About half of people who have had a stroke also have dysphagia. About half of people with dysphagia have aspiration. About one-third of these people will need treatment for pneumonia at some point.

 The functions of centrioles are:

• The main function of centriole is to help with cell division in animal cells.
• The centrioles also help in the formation of the spindle fibers that separate the chromosomes during cell division (mitosis).
• The second function of centrioles that we will focus on is celiogenesis. Celiogenesis is the formation of cilia and flagella on the surface of cells. Cilia and flagella help in the movement of cell.

The vegetable ghee may contain trans fat. Trans fats are said to cause serious health conditions.” In fact, since vegetable ghee is so high in trans fats, it is considered extremely harmful for people, especially those who live sedentary lifestyles. The higher concentration of the nutrients in the ghee is due to its higher concentration of fat. A 2013 study determined that ghee isn't as harmful to heart health as it may appear. Ghee has been blamed for heart disease in Asian Indians populations because of the high amounts of artery clogging saturated fat.