Pteridophytes display differentiation. The plant body can be divided into a true root, stem, and leaves. A saprophyte is the main plant body here. Some of the species belonging to this division have small leaves called as the microphylls. For example, Selaginella. Megaphylls are the large leaves that some pteridophytes have. For Example Fern plants. The main plant bears the sporangia. These bear some leaf-like appendages called the sporophylls. In a few species such as Selaginella and Equisetum, the sporophylls form compact structures called cones or strobili.

The Calvin cycle can be described under three stages: carboxylation, reduction and regeneration.
Carboxylation: Fixation of CO₂ into a stable organic intermediate is called carboxylation. In this step, carbon dioxide is utilised for the carboxylation of RuBP. The enzyme RuBP carboxylase catalyses this reaction. The reaction results in the formation of two molecules of 3-PGA. This enzyme is also called RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase or RuBisCO; because it also has an oxygenation activity.
Reduction: This step involves utilization of 2 molecules of ATP for phosphorylation and two of NADPH for reduction of each CO₂ molecule fixed. For the removal of one molecule of glucose from the pathway, fixation of six molecules of CO2 and 6 turns of the cycle are required.
Regeneration: This step involves regeneration of CO₂ acceptor molecule RuBP. This is necessary for the cycle to continue without interruption. This step requires one ATP for phosphorylation to form RuBP.

A blood test is used to determine whether the A and/or B characteristics are present in a blood sample. It is not possible to determine the exact genotype from a blood test result of either type A or type B. If someone has blood type A, they must have at least one copy of the A allele, but they could have two copies. 

Their genotype is either AA or AO. Similarly, someone who is blood type B could have a genotype of either BB or BO.

A blood test of either type AB or type O is more informative. Someone with blood type AB must have both the A and B alleles. The genotype must be AB. Someone with blood type O has neither the A nor the B allele. The genotype must be OO.

Similarities

1. In both solanaceae and liliaceae ovaries are superior type
2. both have multilocular ovaries
3. both are actinomorphic

Differences between Solanaceae and Liliaceae on the basis of their gynoecia.

The layers of pigment cells can alter the color of a frog’s skin from bright green to dark brown. This talent helps a frog blend in with its environment.

The cells are contortionists. Hormones in the frog can change the cells’ shape, move around the pigment inside the cells, and alter the intensity of light coming from them. 

As a frog leaps from a bright green leaf to a muddy brown pond, the cells in its skin adjust the frog’s hue to match and keep the frog hidden.  

The small intestine has millions of tiny finger-like projections called villi. These villi increase the surface area for more efficient food absorption. Within these villi, are present numerous blood vessels which absorb the digested food and carry it to the blood stream. Hence from the blood stream, the absorbed food is delivered to each and every cell of the body.

Floral formula is a means to represent the structure of a flower using numbers, letters and various symbols, presenting substantial information about the flower in a compact form. It can represent particular species, or can be generalized to characterize higher taxa, usually giving ranges of organ numbers. The writing of floral formula one should start from bract and bracteole then symmetry and *** of flower, calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. The number of parts of each organ is indicated in figures (1, …… 4, 5) after the relevant symbol (K, C, A, G).

• Water potential is the difference between free energy of water molecules in a pure solvent and free energy of water molecules in a solution.
• Solute potential (Ψs) and pressure potential (Ψp) are the two main components that determine water potential.
• The greater the concentration of water in a system, the greater is its kinetic energy or ‘water potential’.
• Water potential is denoted by the Greek symbol Psi or Ψ and is expressed in pressure units such as pascals (Pa).
• The water potential of pure water at standard temperatures is taken to be zero

Hydrochloric acid is secreted by the glands present on the stomach walls. It dissolves bits of food and creates an acidic medium. The acidic medium allows pepsinogen to be converted into pepsin. Pepsin plays an important role in the digestion of proteins. Therefore, if HCl were not secreted in the stomach, then pepsin would not be activated. This would affect protein digestion. A pH of about 1.8 is necessary for proteins to be digested. This pH is achieved by HCl.

• Agar  or agar-agar is a jelly-like substance, obtained from red algae.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agar#cite_note-1"> </a>
• Agar is a mixture of two components: the linear polysaccharide agarose, and a heterogeneous mixture of smaller molecules called agaropectin.
• No, agar-agar is not poisonous it can be used as a laxative, an appetite suppressant, a vegetarian substitute for gelatin, a thickener for soups, in fruit preserves, ice cream, and other desserts, as a clarifying agent in brewing, and for sizing paper and fabrics.

Transpiration: Loss of water through stomata,during day time.

How does transpiration cause water to be pulled?

During transpiration,when water is lost, It creates a vacuum between their xylem vessels. The vacuum creates a suction pull,this helps in transport of water.

• Cohesion and adhesion also take place.

Cohesion: Attraction between similar molecules (between water molecule)[Since H2O is a dipole molecule]

Adhesion: Attraction between dissimilar molecule (between water and stem)

In some flowers calyx and corolla are undifferentiated and cannot be distinguished. They are termed perianth, e.g. Lily.