In botany, secondary growth is the growth that results from cell division in the cambia or lateral meristems and that causes the stems and roots to thicken, while primary growth is growth that occurs as a result of cell division at the tips of stems and roots, causing them to elongate, and gives rise to primary tissue. Secondary growth is the formation of secondary tissues from lateral meristems. It increases the diameter of the stem. In woody plants, secondary tissues constitute the bulk of the plant. They take part in providing protection, support and conduction of water and nutrients.

Linn represents the name of the author i,e., carolous Linnaeus who first coined the term Mangifera indica

Mangifera indica Linn is the scientific name for mango. The Linn is the abbreviation which is used for the scientist who named it, Carolus Linnaeus, whenever such abbreviation is used after the scientific name then it always show the name of the scientist who named it. Mangifera represents the genus and indicia represent the species.

FSH regulates the development, growth, pubertal maturation and reproductive processes of the human body. In both males and females, FSH stimulates the maturation of primordial germ cells. Follicle stimulating hormone is one of the hormones essential to pubertal development and the function of women's ovaries and men's testes. In women, this hormone stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles in the ovary before the release of an egg from one follicle at ovulation. It also increases oestradiol production.

Insulin helps control blood glucose levels by signaling the liver and muscle and fat cells to take in glucose from the blood. Insulin therefore helps cells to take in glucose to be used for energy. If the body has sufficient energy, insulin signals the liver to take up glucose and store it as glycogen.

Photoperiodism . It is the response of plants to periods of day/night. The flowering in some plants depends not only on a combination of light and dark exposures but also their relative durations. The plants that need a longer duration for a period exceeding a well defined critical duration, while the short day plants must be exposed to light for a period less than this critical duration before the flowering is initiated in them.
Vernalisation refers specially to the promotion of flowering by a period of low temperature. Significance Vernalisation prevents precocious reproductive development late in the growing season. This enables the plant to have sufficient time to reach maturity.

Actinomorphic : Actinomorphic flowers can be divided into two radial halves by any radial plane passing through its centre. Examples of these flowers include chilly and mustard.

Epipetalous Stamen : Epipetalous stamens are stamens attached to the petals. They are found in brinjal.

There are mainly three types of vascular bundles:

(i) Radial: Those in which the xylem and the phloem lie radically side-by-side (for example, in roots of seed plants). This is the most primitive type.

(ii) Conjoint: Those in which the two types of tissues are separated from one another. Here xylem and phloem together form a bundle. The two sub-types are collateral and bicollateral.

(a) Collateral: The xylem and phloem lie together on the same radius in such a position that xylem lies inwards and the phloem outwards. Here the phloem occurs on one side of the xylem strand. In the dicotyledonous stem, the cambium is found to be present in between xylem and phloem, such bundles are called open (for example, in <i>Helianthus</i>) and when the cambium is absent, it is called closed (for example, in monocotyledonous stems).

(b) Bicollateral: In such bundles, the phloem is found to be present on both sides of xylem. Simultaneously two cambium strips also occur. Various elements are arranged in the following sequence-outer phloem, outer cambium, xylem, inner cambium and inner phloem. Such bundles are commonly found in the members of Cucurbitaceae. Such bundles are always open.

(iii) Concentric: Those in which one type of tissue surrounds or ensheaths the other. The concentric bundles may be of two subtypes, amphivasal bundle as found in Dracaena., Yucca and other monocots and some dicots. If the phloem surrounds the xylem, it is amphicribal as found in many ferns. Such bundles are always closed.

Cockroach has biting and chewing type of mouth parts.It consists of
labrum-upper lip
a pair of mandibles
a pair of maxillae
labium-lower lip.

Species are often defined as a group of individuals with similar characteristics, where they can interbreed to produce fertile offsprings, typically by sexual reproduction. To differentiate between types of living organisms, species are used as the principal natural unit in biology.

Digestion: The macromolecules in food cannot be utilised by our body in their original form. They need to be broken down and converted into simple substances so that they could be absorbed. The process of converting complex food into absorbable forms is called digestion. Various mechanical and biochemical methods are involved in digestion of food.

Digestion is the process by which food is broken down into simple absorbable substances. Digestion of food takes place in the digestive system. Digestive system is made up of alimentary canal and associated glands.
Parts of alimentary canal:
The mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine form the alimentary canal. It is also known as the digestive tract.
Mouth is guarded by upper lip and lower lip. The process of taking in food through mouth is called as ingestion.
Buccal cavity is the inner region of the mouth. It encloses teeth and tongue.
Teeth are of different types namely, incisors, canines, premolars and molars.
Incisors are used for biting food.
Canines are sharp and pointed and are used to pierce or tear food.
Premolars and molars are the principal grinders helping to chew and grind the food.
Tongue is a muscular organ attached to the floor of the buccal cavity at the back. It helps in mixing of food with saliva and swallowing it. It also helps in tasting different types of food with the help of taste buds present on it. The buccal cavity leads into pharynx.
Pharynx is at the back of buccal cavity. The pharynx is the common channel for food and air. When you swallow food, a flap-like valve called the epiglottis closes the windpipe. It prevents the entry of food particles into respiratory tract.
Oesophagus also called as food pipe helps in conveying the food from buccal cavity to stomach. The oesophagus is also known as the gullet. It is about 25 centimetres long.   Food inside the oesophagus reaches the stomach by peristalsis movements.
Stomach is the widest part of the alimentary canal. It is a J-shaped muscular organ with stomach occurs with the help of digestive juice. Digestive juice comprises of hydrochloric acid, mucous and some enzymes.
Small intestine is made up of three regions namely duodenum, jejunum and ileum.   Partially digested food called the chyme from the stomach is received by the duodenum. Duodenum also receives bile form the liver, enzymes from pancreas and secretes some enzymes on its own. All these substances bring about digestion of food in the intestine. The inner walls of the small intestine have millions of small finger like projections called the villi. Villi increase the surface area for digestion as well as absorption of digested food by eight times.
Large intestine comprises of colon and rectum. Undigested food is sent into large intestine. Water from the food is reabsorbed to a great extent in the large intestine. Undigested waste is stored in the rectum for defecation.
**** is the opening of the alimentary canal to the exterior. This helps in the elimination of faeces by the process of egestion.
Associated glands:  
These glands include salivary glands, gastric glands, intestinal glands, liver and pancreas.
Salivary glands are present inside the buccal cavity. They secrete saliva. This saliva plays an important role in breaking down complex components like starch into simple sugars.
Gastric glands present inside the stomach secrete gastric juice which helps in the digestion of food.
Intestinal glands secrete various enzymes which aid in the process of digestion of food.
Liver is the largest gland in our body. The liver secretes a yellowish green watery fluid called bile. It is temporarily stored in a sac called the gall bladder. Bile plays an important role in the digestion of fats.   Bile is sent into duodenum through a narrow tube-like structure called the bile duct. Bile breaks the larger fat molecules into tiny droplets, thereby increasing their surface area, which helps in the digestion of fats easily.
Pancreas is the mixed gland. It acts as a both endocrine and exocrine gland. The pancreas secretes the pancreatic juice that helps to digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats. The pancreatic juice converts carbohydrates into simple sugars and glucose, proteins into amino acids, and the lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.

Digestion: The macromolecules in food cannot be utilised by our body in their original form. They need to be broken down and converted into simple substances so that they could be absorbed. The process of converting complex food into absorbable forms is called digestion. Various mechanical and biochemical methods are involved in digestion of food.

The tissues of a plant are organized into three tissue systems: the dermal tissue system, the ground tissue system, and the vascular tissue system.  Plant cells form plant tissue systems that support and protect a plant. There are three types of tissue systems: dermal, vascular, and ground. Vascular tissue is composed of xylem and phloem. These tube-like structures transport water and nutrients throughout the plant.  

There are mainly three types of vascular bundles:

(i) Radial: Those in which the xylem and the phloem lie radically side-by-side (for example, in roots of seed plants). This is the most primitive type.

(ii) Conjoint: Those in which the two types of tissues are separated from one another. Here xylem and phloem together form a bundle. The two sub-types are collateral and bicollateral.

(a) Collateral: The xylem and phloem lie together on the same radius in such a position that xylem lies inwards and the phloem outwards. Here the phloem occurs on one side of the xylem strand. In the dicotyledonous stem, the cambium is found to be present in between xylem and phloem, such bundles are called open (for example, in Helianthus) and when the cambium is absent, it is called closed (for example, in monocotyledonous stems).

(b) Bicollateral: In such bundles, the phloem is found to be present on both sides of xylem. Simultaneously two cambium strips also occur. Various elements are arranged in the following sequence-outer phloem, outer cambium, xylem, inner cambium and inner phloem. Such bundles are commonly found in the members of Cucurbitaceae. Such bundles are always open.

(iii) Concentric: Those in which one type of tissue surrounds or ensheaths the other. The concentric bundles may be of two subtypes, amphivasal bundle as found in Dracaena., Yucca and other monocots and some dicots. If the phloem surrounds the xylem, it is amphicribal as found in many ferns. Such bundles are always closed.

Nutrients are elements in foods that a living being uses to endure and grow. They are various factors that nutrients are influenced that may be a factor of age, activities, and stage of growth.

Types of Nutrients

In general, they are divided into two categories.

• Macronutrients
• Micronutrients

Prolactin tells the milk-making glands in your breast to make breast milk. Oxytocin signals the let-down reflex to release the milk. 2 It causes the alveoli to contract and squeeze the breast milk out into the milk ducts.  Prolactin causes your alveoli to take nutrients (proteins, sugars) from your blood supply and turn them into breast milk. Oxytocin causes the cells around the alveoli to contract and eject your milk down the milk ducts. This passing of the milk down the ducts is called the “let-down” (milk ejection) reflex.

The alternation of generation between the sexual and asexual phase within the same species is called as metagenesis .
It generally shown by cnidarians which exhibits both forms – polyps and medusae .
Polyps produce medusae asexually , and medusae forms polyps sexually .  example – obellia .

The prospects for enhancing flowering, for the purposes of breeding and seed supply, appear good, particularly for members of the Pinaceae. The most successful techniques involve the application of the gibberellin A4 and A7 mixture combined with cultural treatments such as drought, root pruning or girdling. There is scope for these techniques to be used in outdoor seed orchards but more particularly with container-grown plants in polythene houses. Less research has been published on enhancing flowering in broadleaves (angiosperms) though there has been considerable attention to factors affecting blossom and fruit development. Techniques that encourage rapid vegetative growth so that plants quickly reach a certain minimum size may be the most promising to promote flowering of broadleaves. Avenues for further research are considered.

  Nucleotidases and nucleosidases these enzymes involved in the breakdown of nucleotides into sugars and bases.

The sum total of all the chemical reactions occurring inside the living organism is called metabolism. All the activities like growth, reproduction, movements, responsiveness, development, etc., are due to metabolism.
Metabolism includes two stages, i.e., anabolism and catabolism. Anabolism includes all the building up reactions, e.g., Photosyntesis and catabolism constitutes breakdown reactions, e.g., Respiration.

Rhizobium (plural: Rhizobia) is the nitrogen fixing bacteria present mainly in the soil. The Rhizobia chemically convert the nitrogen from the air to make it available for the plant.These bacteria live in symbiotic relationship with leguminous plants. The Rhizobia live in nodules in the roots of the plant. These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates and nitrites which can be used by the plants directly. Nitrogen fertilizers are not required.

The chloroplast is bounded by a double membrane layer. There are two distinct regions present inside the chloroplasts. One is grana while the other is stroma. Grana is made up of stacks of disc-shaped structures known as thylakoids. These contain the molecule chlorophyll and are the functional units of chloroplasts. Stroma is the matrix which contains grana and is similar to the cytoplasm in cells in which all the organelles are embedded. Stroma also contains various enzymes, DNA, ribosomes, and other substances. Stroma lamellae connect the stacks of thylakoid sacs. There are two types of reactions by which photosynthesis occur, light reaction and dark reaction. Light reaction occurs in grana while dark reaction takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts.

Functions of Plastids

1. Chloroplasts have a structure called chlorophyll which trap solar energy and this is utilized to manufacture food for the plant.
2. The flowers have different colors because of the pigments called chromoplast. These colors attract insects for pollination.
3. Leucoplasts are the colorless plastids which store food in the form of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

• Oxidoreductases: These enzymes bring about oxidation and reduction reactions and hence are called oxidoreductases. In these reactions, electrons in the form of hydride ions or hydrogen atoms are transferred. When a substrate is being oxidized, these enzymes act as the hydrogen donor. These enzymes are called dehydrogenases or reductases. When the oxygen atom is the acceptor, these enzymes are called oxidases.
• Transferases: These enzymes are responsible for transferring functional groups from one molecule to another. Example: alanine aminotransferase which shuffles the alpha‐amino group between alanine and aspartate etc. Some transferases also transfer phosphate groups between ATP and other compounds, sugar residues to form disaccharides such as hexokinase in glycolysis.
• Hydrolases: These enzymes catalyze reactions that involve the process of hydrolysis.They break single bonds by adding water. Some hydrolases function as digestive enzymes because they break the peptide bonds in proteins. Hydrolases can also be a type of transferases as they transfer the water molecule from one compound to another. Example: Glucose-6-phosphatase that removes the phosphate group from glucose-6-phosphate, leaving glucose and H3PO4.
• Lyases:  These enzymes catalyze reactions where functional groups are added to break double bonds in molecules or where double bonds are formed by the removal of functional groups. Example: Pyruvate decarboxylase is a lyase that removes CO2 from pyruvate. Other examples include deaminases and dehydratases.
• Isomerases: These enzymes catalyze the reactions where a functional group is moved to another position within the same molecule such that the resulting molecule is actually an isomer of the earlier molecule. Example: triosephosphate isomerase and phosphoglucose isomerase for converting glucose 6-phosphate to fructose 6-phosphate.
• Ligases: These enzymes perform a function that is opposite to that of the hydrolases. Where hydrolases break bonds by adding water, ligases form bonds by removal of the water component. There are different subclasses of ligases which involve the synthesis of ATP.

Metamerism is a condition in which an organism forms or possesses a linear series of body segments. For example, in animals, metamerism is exhibited by earthworms. Their body is divided into segments or metameres. ... The strict serial succession of metameres is particularly called homonymous metametry. Metameric segmentation is true segmentation in which external segmentation corresponds to the internal segmentation and the body is divided into a number of segments. Animals which belong to phyla Annelida and Arthropoda exhibit metameric segmentation.