After the events of 1815, many liberal nationalists went underground for the fear of repression.

Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary. He was born in 1807. He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. When he was 24 years old, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. After that, he founded two more underground societies; first Young Italy in Marseilles and then Young Europe in Berne. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy had to be forged into a single unified republic instead of being a patchwork of small state kingdoms. Following in the footsteps of Mazzini, many secret societies were set up Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. The Conservatives feared Mazzini.

The main features of treaty of Vienna are:

• Treaty of Vienna of 1815 was brought up with the object of undoing most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the Napoleonic wars.
• The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French Revolution, was restored to powerFrance lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.
• A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.
• The kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium, was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south.
• Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy. But the German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by Napoleon was left untouched.
• In the east, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.  

The aristocracy is a social class that a particular society considers its highest order.
1. A land owning class.
2. Small in number but dominated Europe politically and socially.
3. Spoke French to maintain status.
4. Their families were connected through marriage.

•  The feudal system was a way of government based on obligations between the lord or king and vassal.
• A political and economic system of Europe from the 9^th to about the 15^th century, based on the holding of all land in fief or fee and the resulting relation of lord to vassal and characterized by homage, legal and military service of tenants, and forfeiture.

It was because the silk and the cotton which was produced in india was high graded and it made a good market out there they used to buy the raw materials from india and sell the manufactured products in india at high prices and this trade proved to be very profitable to the european traders.

Various steps were taken to clean up London.

1. Attempts were made to spread out the tenements. Parks were created and trees were planted to reduce pollution.
2. Large blocks of apartments were built.
3. The city dwellers longed for the fresh country side. So a ‘green belt’ was created around London. Ebenezer Howard, an Architect, developed the principle of the Garden City, a city full of plants and trees, where people would both live and work. This would ensure a better quality of life for the city dwellers.
4. Ebenezer Howard called for the creation of new suburban towns of limited size, planned in advance, and surrounded by a permanent belt of agricultural land. These Garden cities were used as a role model for many suburbs. Howard believed that such Garden Cities were the perfect blend of city and nature. The towns would be largely independent, and managed and financed by the citizens who had an economic interest in them
5. The Government realising the need for good housing for the city dwellers built a million houses, most of them single-family cottages.

 (i) Producers of coarse cloth: Amongst weavers some produced coarse cloth while others wove finer varieties. The coarser cloth was bought, by the poor and its demand fluctuated violently. In times of bad harvests and famines when the rural poor had little to eat. and their cash income disappeared, they could not possibly buy cloth.
(ii) Producers of finer varieties: The producers of finer varieties were in a better position because the demand for the finer varieties bought by the well- to-do was more stable. The rich could buy these even when the poor starved. Famines did not affect the sale of Banarasi or Baluchari saris. Moreover, as you have seen, mills could not imitate specialised weavers. Saris with woven borders, or the famous lungis and handkerchiefs of Madras, could not be easy displaced by mill production.

Impeachment is the process in which an official who is accused of violating the constitution or of any unlawful activity is removed from the office. For example, In case of Judiciary, if any judge is found guilty of violating the constitution, he can be removed (impeached in legal term) by the legislature.The Judges of the Supreme Court or High Court if found guilty of incapacity or misbehavior they can be impeached by the Parliament of India which requires 2/3rd majority by both the houses separately.

The historians face several difficulties in using manuscripts. There was no printing press in those days so scribes copied manuscripts by hand. Manuscript copying is not an easy job. As scribes copied manuscripts, they also introduced small changes—a word here, a sentence there. These small differences grew over centuries of copying until manuscripts of the same text became substantially different from one another. This is a serious problem because we rarely find the original manuscript of the author today. We are totally dependent upon the copies made by later scribes. As a result historians have to read different manuscript versions of the same text to guess what the author had originally written.  

The process of unification of Germany:

1. The middle-class Germans had tried to fight for a united nation governed by an elected parliament in 1848 but were repressed by the monarchy and military.

2. Otto von Bismarck, chief minister of Prussian led the movement for unification of Germany. He was supported by the bureaucracy and the Prussian army.

3. After three wars with Austria, Denmark, and France, Prussia won and unified Germany. The Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed the German emperor in January 1871.