Alluvial soil- It is a loose form of soil that consists of sediments made up of eroded rock material. Silt, clay, sand and gravel are some of the constituents of alluvial soil. It is very fertile in nature and suitable for agriculture, particularly crops like rice.
Black soil- It consists of large amount of clay and humus and is formed from basic rocks like basalt and in places of lava deposits. This type of soil is suitable for cotton cultivation. In India, it is found in the Deccan Plateau region.
Red Soil- This type of soil is rich in iron oxide content that fives it a reddish tinge. It is formed by breakdown of igneous and metamorphic rocks. THis type of soil is also found in the Deccan Plateau region in India. It is also known as yellow soil.
Laterite soil- This type of soil is rich in alumunium and iron content and is formed in wet and tropical areas. It is formed through the process of tropical weathering or leaching. The ions formed as a result of hydrolysis during leaching are brought to surface and form salt compounds which are washed away by rains. This soil is not very fertile.
Arid soil- This type of soil is sandy and saline and is found in arid regions, particularly deserts. The soil lacks humus and moisture due to dry climate and rapid evaporation. The calcium content in this type of soil increases downwards.
Forest soil- It is rich in dead organic matter and humus content caused by their decomposition. Thus, the soil is rich in nutrients.

A project designed to serve more than one purpose. For example, one that provides water for irrigation, recreation, fish and wildlife, and, at the same time, controls floods or generates electric power.
Advantages of multipurpose project:-
1)used to generate hydroelectricity.
2) it supplies water for the domestic and industrial purpose.
3) it helps to control flood.
4) it provide recreation facilities/picnic/boating.
5) they are also for land navigation.
6) useful for pisciculture.

There are three major differences between a national party and regional/state party:

• National parties have influence all over the country or in several states of India. The influence of a state party is limited to a state or region.
• National parties take interest in national as well as international issues; whereas regional or state parties are interested in promoting regional/state interest only.
• The national parties have to harmonise the national as well as state interests; whereas state parties usually stand for greater autonomy for states.

The length of road per 100 sq km of area is known as density of roads.
Advantages of roadways over railways are
(i) Construction cost of roads is much lower than railway lines.
(ii) Roads can be constructed easily in hilly terrains and undulating topography.
(iii) Roadways act as a feeder to other modes of transport, as they provide a link between railway stations, air and sea ports.
(iv) Road transport is economical in transportation of few persons and relatively smaller amount of goods over short distances.
Thus, it can be concluded that roadways still have an edge over railways in India.

The Brussels was chosen as the headquarter of the European Union as the Brussels became as a role model for managing diverse ethnic population without any of the conflicts. So as a part of this it also represents many of the advantages:
1) Brussels is centrally located
2) It has a socially diverse population
3) It is a cosmopolitan city.
4) It is situated in the center of the Urban Europe  and has a good connection between the major cities like London, Paris etc.

• The Magadha Empire was the most powerful Kingdom in Ancient India. It had powerful kings like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Dhana Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya, etc.
• This rise of Magadha Imperialism is unique in Indian history. The political history of India from the earliest times till the present day is an endless story of struggle between the forces of centralization and decentralization.
• In the sixth century B.C., India presented the chronic symptom of disintegration. The Aryan India in the North was divided into, sixteen great kingdoms and a number of republican, autonomous states.
• Out of the medley of political atoms, four kingdoms viz., Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha, Magadha Empire rose into prominence by aggrandizing upon other weaker states. They entered into a four-power conflict for imperial supremacy which ended in the ultimate victory of Magadha Kingdom over them. It is the first successful attempt for imperial and dynastic unification of India in the period of recorded history.
• One of the main factors behind the rise of Magadhan Power was her economic solvency and growing prosperity. Magadha had a vast population which could be employed in agriculture, mining and for manning her army. The Sudras and the non-Aryans could be employed in clearing up the forest and reclaim surplus land for farming. The surplus population could easily live on the yield of the surplus land. The Magadhan lands were very fertile due to its location between the Ganges and the Son. In the 4th Century B.C. that the Magadhan lands yielded multiple crops round the year. People of Magadhan Empire became prosperous due to fertility of the land and the government became automatically rich and powerful.

1. It helps in settlements of large number of problems and issues at the local level.
2. It provides a platform of direct participation of of people in decision making.
3. In another way, decentralization is in the form of 'Local Self Government' is the best way to realize principles of democracy.

 Novel is a modern form of literature that describes fictional characters and events, usually in the form of sequential story.
Features:-
(I) Novels began to be written from the 17th century, but really flowered from the 18th century.
(ii) Most of the novels were written on social issues such as marriage relationship, the proper conduct of men and women etc.

Food security means availability of food to all people all the time. Food security has following dimensions:

• Availability of food: This means the food production within the country, food imports and previous years’ stock stored in government granaries.
• Accessibility of food: This means food should be within reach of every person.
• Affordability: This means that every individual has enough money to buy sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet one’s dietary needs.

1. Ahmedabad is situated in the heart of a cotton growing area; hence the major raw material easily available.
2. The humid climate is ideal for spinning and weaving.
3. The flat terrain and easy availability of land is suitable for the establishment of the mills.
4. Well developed road and railway network permits easy transportation of textiles to different parts of the country, thus providing easy access to the market.

Legitimate government is a government under which law and action of the government are revealed to the people and government function in a transparent manner. Following features of a democratic government make it a legitimate government.
(i) The laws are applicable to all the citizen whether rich or poor.
(it) In a democracy there is a political equality i.e. every vote counts equally.
(iii) People have the right to challenge the government policies and actions. If the people are not satisfied with the working of the government they have the right to change it.

Food security means availability of food to all people all the time. Food security has following dimensions:

• Availability of food: This means the food production within the country, food imports and previous years’ stock stored in government granaries.
• Accessibility of food: This means food should be within reach of every person.
• Affordability: This means that every individual has enough money to buy sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet one’s dietary needs.

(i) When Indian leaders were arrested, angry crowds demonstrated in the streets of Peshawar, facing armoured cars and police firing. Many were killed.
(ii) A month later, when Gandhiji himself was arrested, industrial workers attacked police posts, government buildings, law courts and railway stations and all structures that symbolised the British rule.
(iii) A frightened government responded with a policy of brutal repression. Peaceful satyagrahis were attacked, women and children were beaten, and about 100,000 people were arrested.
(iv) To break the deadline between Congress and the government Lord Irwin invited Gandhiji for a peace pact i.e Gandhi-Irwin pact.
(v) Under such a situation Gandhiji decided to call off the movement.

On the basis of development resources can be classified as :

*Potential resources--The western part of India particularly Rajasthan and Gujarat have enormous potential for the development of wind and solar energy,but so far these have not been developed properly.

*Developed resources--Oil reserves in Bombay high.

*Stock--Water is a compound of two gases;hydrogen and oxygen.Hydrogen can be used as a rich source of energy.But we do not have advanced technical knoow how to use it for this purpose.Hence,it can be considered as stock.

*Reserves--The water in the dams ,forest etc.is a reserve which can be used in future.

Causes of land degradation:

• Deforestation: Forests play an important role in maintaining fertility of soil by shedding their leaves which contain many nutrients. Forests are also helpful in binding up of soil particles with the help of roots of vegetation. Therefore, cutting о forests will affect the soil adversely.
• Excessive Use of Fertilizers and Pesticides-Excessive use of fertilizers is causing an imbalance in the quantity of certain nutrients in the soil. This imbalance adversely affects the vegetation.
• Overgrazing-Due to this, grass and other types of vegetation are unable to survive and grow in the area, and lack of vegetation cover leads to soil erosion. 
• Salination--Increase in the concentration of soluble salts in the soil is called salination. India has about six million hectares of saline land.
• Water-logging-Excessive irrigation and improper drainage facility in the fields cause rise in the ground water level. This ground water mixes with surface water used for irrigation and creates a situation called water-logging
• Desertification: Desertification is a widespread process of land degradation in arid, semi- arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.
• Soil erosion:Accelerated soil erosion by water and wind is the major land degradation process and this is a consequence of changed relationship between environmental factors which occur as a result of human interventions.
• Wasteland-Wastelands are the lands which are economically unproductive, ecologically unsuitable and subject to environmental deterioration.

Ways to solve the problem of land degradation:

1. Gardening. Planting vegetation and grass can stop heavy rains from damaging our land and it protects the topsoil from being washed away.
2. Afforestation and Reforestation.
3. Conservation Tillage.
4. Constructing Wind Breakers.
5. Using Fertilizers.

Power sharing is good because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups .Scenes social conflict often leads to Violence and political instability .Power sharing is a goodway to ensure the stability of political order.In a democracy ,the citizens must have freedom to choose among various contenders for power.In contemporary democracies ,this takes the form of compettition among various parties.Such compettition ensures that power does not remain in one hand.Sometimes this kind of sharing can be direct when two or more parties form an alliance to contest elections.If their alliance is elected they form a coalation government and thus share power.

The political conditions of Europe as follows :
(i) The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe.
(ii) In most countries, there were more job seekers than employment. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
(iii) Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine made goods from England, where industrialisation was more advanced than on the continent.
(iv) In these regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
(v) The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.