• In 1922 the Chauri Chaura incident where 22-23 policemen died due to violent class between people and police disheartened Gandhiji. He did not tolerate violence at any cost. Thus he called off Non-Cooperation Movement.
• Gandhi ji felt that the movement was turning violent in many places and satyagrahis  had to be trained properly before a mass movement.
• Due to the Chauri-Chaura incident where  a police station was set on fire and policemen were burnt alive.
• Within the congress, some members were tired of mass struggles and they now wanted to participate in elections.

The Protestant Reformation, often referred to simply as the Reformation, was the schism within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other early Protestant Reformers.
Martin Luther was a German monk and Professor of Theology at the University of Wittenberg. Luther sparked the Reformation in 1517 by posting, at least according to tradition, his "95 Theses" on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany - these theses were a list of statements that expressed Luther's concerns about certain Church practices - largely the sale of indulgences, but they were based on Luther's deeper concerns with Church doctrine. Before we go on, notice that the word Protestant contains the word "protest" and that reformation contains the word "reform" - this was an effort, at least at first, to protest some practices of the Catholic Church and to reform that Church.

A special economic zone (SEZ) is an area in which business and trade laws are different from rest of the country. SEZs are located within a country's national borders, and their aims include: increased trade, increased investment, job creation and effective administration. To encourage businesses to set up in the zone, financial policies are introduced. These policies typically regard investing, taxation, trading, quotas, customs and labour regulations. Additionally, companies may be offered tax holidays, where upon establishing in a zone they are granted a period of lower taxation.

Almost every country in the world has social diversities in respect to caste, race, religion, language, etc. Democracy is considered to be the most suitable form of government to accommodate these diversities. It aims at giving equal rights and opportunities to all the citizens.
Democracy is not simply rule by majority opinion. The majority always needs to work for minority. Democracy does not believe in any kind of discrimination among citizens on grounds of caste, religion, colour, ***, race, etc. It accommodates alLsocial diversities.

(i) By the mid-19th century, Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the power driven cylindrical press. This was capable of printing 8,000 sheets per hour. This press was particularly useful for printing newspaper.

(ii) In the late 19th century, the offset press was developed which would print up to six colours at a time. 

(iii) From the turn of the 20th century, electrically-operated presses accelerated the printing operations. 

(iv) Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality of plates became better, automatic paper reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were introduced.

(v) The dust cover or the book jackets were introduced.

 (i) The depression immediately affected Indian trade. India’s exports and imports recorded nearly halved between 1928 and 1934. As international prices crashed, prices in India were also plunged. Between 1928 and 1934, wheat prices in India fell by 50 per cent.
(ii)Peasants and farmers suffered more than urban dwellers. Though agricultural prices fell sharply, the colonial government refused to reduce revenue demands. Peasants producing for the world market were the worst hit.
(iii)Across India, peasants’ indebtedness increased. They used up their savings, mortgaged lands, and sold whatever jewellery and precious metals they had to meet their expenses.
(iv)In these depression years, India became an exporter of precious metals, notably gold. The famous economist John Maynard Keynes thought that Indian gold exports promoted global economic recovery.

A challenge is not just any problem. 

We call only those difficulties a ‘challenge’ which are significant and which can be overcome. 

A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for progress. 

Once we overcome a challenge we go up to a higher level than before.

• Borders roads are constructed and maintained by Borders Road Organization (BRO), Government of India undertaking constructs and maintains roads in the bordering areas of the country.
• This organization was established in 1960 for the development of the roads of strategic importance in the northern and north-eastern border areas.
• It improves the security because army and arms can be mobilized easily through these roads.
• It provides easy access to difficult terrain and have helped in the economic development of these areas.
• Construction of roads adds to the economic development of India.  

• Political Fragmentation: Like Germany, Italy was also politically fragmented. During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia- Piedmont was ruled by an Italian Prince.
• Role ofMazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini made efforts to unite Italian Republic. He had formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ for achieving his goal.
• Role of Count Cavour: He was the chief minister who led the movement to unify Italy. He formed a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and defeated the Austrian forces.
• Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi: Garibaldi also formed armed volunteers. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdoms of Two Sicilies and succeeded in driving out the Spanish rulers.
• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of United Italy.

Utopian societies are near perfect societies on values, customs etc.
It is an exaggerated term. such a society is not practically possible.