Federation is formed by coming together and holding together federation.
In Coming together federation, several states come together to form a big unity so that by pooling sovereignty they can increase their security,in this federation every state has equal power.
E.g USA
In Holding together federation,the government at the centre decides to divide their power among various states,in this federation central government has more power
E.g India

(i) Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be equal in the Central Government. No single community can take decisions unilaterally.
(ii) The State Governments are not subordinate to the Central Government.
(iii) Brussels, the capital, has a separate government where both the communities have equal representation.
(iv) A third kind of government, ‘Community Government’ is elected by people belonging to one language community Dutch, French and German speaking—no matter where they live. This government can decide on cultural, educational and language related issues.

Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, provided, it is technologically accessible, economically . feasible and culturally acceptable can be termed as Resource. Examples, coal, water, air, minerals, etc.
Resources are important for the development of any country. For example, fossil fuels are essential to generate energy, mineral resources are important for industrial development, etc.

Soil is the upper layer of earth in which plants grow and is usually composed of a mixture of organic remains, clay, and rock particles.Soil is the upper layer of earth in which plants grow and is usually composed of a mixture of organic remains, clay, and rock particles.
Horizon-A: 
The topmost layer is dark in color, and contains the remains of dead plants and animals. This rotting matter is called humus.

1. This layer of soil is called topsoil or A-horizon.
2. It is made up of humus and minerals, and makes the soil fertile.
3. It is soft and porous, and can retain more water than the other layers.
4. Many tiny organisms, such as beetles, worms and rodents, live in the topsoil. The roots of small plants do not go down very deep and can be found in the topsoil. 

Horizon-B: 

1. The layer below the topsoil is called B-horizon or the middle layer.
2. The middle layer is less porous than the topsoil, and is, therefore, harder.
3. It contains more minerals as compared to the topsoil, but less quantity of humus.

 
Horizon-C:

It is not as compact as the two layers above it. This layer is called C-horizon.
It has cracks running through it.
It is mostly made up of rocks.
 
Bedrock: The bottom-most layer in the soil profile is called bedrock.
This is far more solid in composition than the other layers and is very hard. This layer consists of the parent rock.

• Political Fragmentation of Italy Italy had a long history of political fragmentation. Italy was divided into seven states during the middle of the nineteenth century.
• Of these seven states only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. At that time North of Italy was under Austrian Habsburg, the centre was ruled by Pope and the Southern regions were ruled by the Bourbon kings of Spain.
• Role of Mazzini: During 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had tried to unite Italy. He formed the secret society called young Italy. But both the uprising in 1831 and 1848 failed. Even the ruling elites also wanted a unified Italy which would offer economic development and political dominance.
• Role of Cavour: The unification of Italy was a result of many wars. Chief Minister Cavour made a tactful diplomatic alliance with France, and Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
• Role of Garibaldi: A large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the unification movement. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies succeeded to drive out the Spanish rulers with the help of local people. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as king of United Italy.

Yes, there are regions which are rich in certain types of resources but are deficient in some other resources.
(i) Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits.
(ii) Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water resources but lacks in infrastructural development.
(iii) Rajasthan is endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks in water resources.
(iv) Ladakh has rich cultural heritage but lacks in water resources and infrastructure.

• Credit plays a crucial role in a country’s development. By sanctioning loans to developing industries and trade, banks provide them with the necessary aid for improvement.
• This leads to increase in the production, profits and employment. However, caution must be exercised in the case of loans from the informal sector which include high interest rates that may be more harmful than good.
• For this reason, it is important that the formal sector gives out more loans so that borrowers are not duped by moneylenders, and can ultimately contribute to national development.
• For example- a loan given to a fresh post-graduate for setting up a business might contribute to employment generation, infrastructure development in the near future.

The main criterion used by the World Bank in classifying different countries:
Countries with per capita income of US$ 12616 per annum and above in 2012, are called rich countries and those with per capita income of US$ 1035 or less are called low-income countries. India comes in the category of low middle income countries because its per capita income in 2012 was just US$ 1530 per annum. The rich countries, excluding countries of Middle East and certain other small countries, are generally called developed countries.
Limitations :
Limitations of this criterion are that while average income is useful for competition, it does not tell us how this income is distributed among people. A country may have more equitable distribution. People may be neither very rich nor extremely poor. But in another country with same average income, one person may be extremely rich, while others may be very poor. So, the method of average income does not give correct picture of a country.

German unification

• Prussia took over the leadership of the movement for German national unification after the failure of the Frankfurt Parliament in 1848.
• Prussian Chancellor, Otto Von Bismark was the architect of this process which was carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
• Bismark fought three wars in seven years with Austira, Denmark and France which ended in Prussian Victory and completed the process of unification.
• In 18th January 1871, the Prussian king, William-I was proclaimed the German emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

Unification of Italy

• Political Fragmentation: Like Germany, Italy was also politically fragmented. During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia- Piedmont was ruled by an Italian Prince.
• Role of Mazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini made efforts to unite Italian Republic. He had formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ for achieving his goal.
• Role of Count Cavour: He was the chief minister who led the movement to unify Italy. He formed a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and defeated the Austrian forces.
• Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi: Garibaldi also formed armed volunteers. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdoms of Two Sicilies and succeeded in driving out the Spanish rulers.
• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of United Italy.

• German nation was a confederation of states before it's unification.
• After the failure of the Frankfurt Parliament now the work of unification was on the shoulders of Otto Von Bismarck.
• Otto von Bismarck was the chief minister of Germany. He used army and bureucracy for the process of unification.
• Seven wars in three years with France, Italy and Germany ended with Prussian victory and the process of unification was completed.

The domino theory was a theory prominent from the 1950s to the 1980s that posited that if one country in a region came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect.

• When several parties in a multi-party system join hands for the purpose of contesting elections and winning power, it is called an alliance or front.
• In India, there were three major alliances in 2004 parliamentary elections.
• These were the National Democratic Alliance or NDA formed by BJP and its allies. Then the United Progressive Alliance or UPA led by Congress and its allies. The third one was the Left Front, which is formed by Communists or their parties like CPI and CPI(M).

• While elections are held regularly and enthusiastically, Gram Sabhas are not held regularly.
• Most State governments have not transferred significant powers to the local governments.
• Nor were they given adequate resources.

• Measures taken in majoritarianism gradually increased the feeling of alienation among Sri Lankan Tamils.
• They felt that the constitution and government policies denied them equal political rights, discriminated against them in getting jobs and other opportunities and ignored their interests.
• As a result, the relations between Sinhalas and Tamil communities got strained over time.
• The Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for the recognition of Tamil as an official language, regional autonomy and equality of opportunities in getting education and jobs.
• By the 1980s, several political organisations were formed demanding an independent Tamil Elam (state) in northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
• The distrust between the two communities turned into widespread conflict. It soon turned into a civil war. As a result, thousands of people of both the communities were killed.

As federalism has two or more levels of governments it has dual objectives.
(i) to safeguard and promote unity of the country.
(ii) and to accommodate regional diversity.
=> These two aspects are crucial for the institution and practice of federalism. The government at different levels should agree to some rules of power sharing.
=> They should also trust that each would abide by its part of agreement.
Hence, an ideal federal system has both aspects i.e., • Mutual trust and • Agreement to live together.

The classification of minerals are:
i). Metallic minerals: We get metals from these minerals. Ores of iron, copper, gold, silver, lead, aluminum, tin etc are important examples of metallic minerals. Metallic minerals can further be divided into ferrous and non-ferrous.
ii). Ferrous minerals: The minerals which contain iron ore are known as ferrous minerals. Iron ore, manganese, nickel, cobalt, etc are some of the important ferrous minerals.
iii). Non-ferrous minerals: Minerals containing metals other than iron ore are known as non-ferrous minerals. Gold, silver, platinum, etc are called non-ferrous minerals.
iv). Precious minerals: The minerals which have very high economic value are known as precious minerals for example gold, silver, platinum etc.
v). Non-metallic minerals: These are minerals which do not contain metals. Coal, petroleum, mica, manganese etc are some important non-metallic minerals. There is deficiency of copper, lead, zinc and gold.
vi). Energy minerals: The minerals which provide energy or power are known as energy minerals. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are the most important energy minerals.

1.  Reformers used newspapers, journals and books to highlight the social evils prevailing in society. Raja Ram Mohan Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi to highlight the plight of widows.
2.  From the 1860s, many Bengali women writers like Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting the experiences of women, about how women were imprisoned at home, kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic labour and treated unjustly by the menfolk they served. In the 1880s, Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote with passionate anger about the miserable lives of the upper-caste Hindu women, especially the widows. The poor status of women was also expressed by Tamil writers.
3.  Jyotiba Phule wrote about the poor condition of the ‘low caste people.’. In his book Gulamgiri (1871), he wrote about the injustices of the caste system. In the 20th century, BR Ambedkar also wrote powerfully against the caste system. He also wrote against untouchability, EV Ramaswamy Naicker, also known as Periyar, wrote about the caste system prevailing in Madras.