Revolutionaries spread the idea in Europe after 1815:
1. The autocratic rule after 1815 had caused fear of repression so the liberal-nationalists started to work underground.
2. They formed secret societies to spread ideas and train revolutionaries.
3. Being a revolutionary was a commitment to struggle for liberty and freedom and they considered nation states necessary for it to happen.
4. Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary who was a member of a secret society, was exiled for attempting a revolution in Liguria and still formed two other secret societies.
5. Following this model, secret societies were set up in France, Germany, Switzerland, and Poland.

The main clauses of the Treaty of Vienna signed in 1815 were:

(i) The Bourbon dynasty which had been deposed during the French Revolution was restored to power.

(ii) A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in the future.

(iii) Kingdom of Netherlands was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south.

(iv) Prussia was given new territories to its west and Austria was given control of northern Italy.

(v) Russia was given part of Poland, while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.

(vi) Their main aim was to restore monarchies and create a new conservative order in Europe.
 

The Civil Disobedience Movement was different from the Non-Cooperation Movement. The main differences between these two movements are
(i) The Non-Cooperation Movement was launched in 1921 by Gandhiji, but the Civil Disobedience Movement was launched in 1930.
(ii) The Non-Cooperation Movement started with middle class participation whereas the Civil Disobedience Movement was first supported by the Industrialists like GD Birla, Purshottamdas Thakur.
(iii) Due to Khalifa issues Muslim community participated in Non-Cooperation on large scale. But the growing proximity of the Congress party and Hindu Mahasabha prevented the Muslims to participate in Civil Disobedience Movement.
(iv) The Non-Cooperation Movement was withdrawn by Gandhiji due to violent incident at Chauri Chaura.
But the Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn in 1931, when Gandhi signed ‘Gandhi-Irwin’ pact.
(v) In Non-Cooperation Movement, Women did not participate in large scale. But large scale participation of women is one of the most significant features of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

The example we will take is about the displacement of the local community from where they were living when the height of the Sardar Sarovar Dam on the River Narmada was raised.
The local community’s notion of development was that they would get more schools for their children to study, have full-time employment etc.
However, the government’s notion of development in this case would be that by raising the height of the dam, they would be able to provide more water to the people of Saurashtra region of Gujarat, which always suffers from water scarcity.
’ In addition, more electricity would be generated with this measure, which would benefit all the people living in that area.

Following are some factors responsible for depletion of flora and fauna :
1. Increase in pollution: 
Economic development of our country has increased the pollution level too. Effluents from Industries are discharged into the river water, sea or lakes which affect the aquatic life and use of pesticides and insecticides in agriculture affects the whole ecosystem.
2. Deforestation: 
Forests are home of innumerable species.Encrochment of the humans in their habitat for their selfish motives has lead to the extinction of various plants and animals.
3. Increase in population: 
Population of India is increasing at faster rate. This has increased pressure on resources of our nation. To meet the demand of increasing population, exploitation of resources takes place.
4. Degardation of land: 
Intensive agriculture, salnization and deforestation etc. degrades the land. Hence, it directly and indirectly affects flora and fauna of that region.
5. Increase use of green house gases:
Increase in CO₂ emission has led to increase in temperature which in turn has affected the biodiversity of our system by increasing severe weather events like drought and flood etc.

• Political Fragmentation: Like Germany, Italy was also politically fragmented. During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia- Piedmont was ruled by an Italian Prince.
• Role ofMazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini made efforts to unite Italian Republic. He had formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ for achieving his goal.
• Role of Count Cavour: He was the chief minister who led the movement to unify Italy. He formed a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and defeated the Austrian forces.
• Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi: Garibaldi also formed armed volunteers. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdoms of Two Sicilies and succeeded in driving out the Spanish rulers.
• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of United Italy.

The independent states which came together on their own to form a bigger unit so that they could increase their security, while maintaining their sovereignty are called the Coming together federations. Example the USA, Switzerland and Australia.

The Simon Commission was a statutory commission aimed at looking into the constitutional system of India and suggest changes. It was an all-white commission without any Indian representation.
 In 1928, when Simon Commission came to India all parties protested against it. To pacify the leaders, Lord Irwin the Viceroy gave a vague offer of Dominion status to India and also proposed a round table conference.

The 73rd amendment to the Constitution of India in 1992 contains provision for devolution of powers and responsibilities to local government agencies like panchayats. The features of the amendment are:

1. The amendment provides for a three tier system of local government at village, block and district levels.

2. It is mandatory for state governments to hold elections to these local government bodies every five years.

3. It provided for reservation of seats in local government bodies to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and women.

4. The amendment mandates states to form a State Finance Commission to make recommendations as regards to the financial powers of the Panchayats. State goverments are required to share powers and revenues with local goverment bodies according to the recommendation of this Commission.

5. The amendment requires the constitution of a District Planning Committee to prepare a development plan draft for the district.

Sustainable  Development : development is the upliftment of a particular section or a place in the society.. achieved by cooperation and exhaustion of various types of natural and man made resources but sustainable development is the type of development achieved without harming the environment, it's various elements and above all the natural resources

We can achieve it by :

•   use of as many eco friendly products and services as possible as good alternatives for products made from resources
•   use of things that don't harm the environment and it's other constituents
•   not burning substances that harm nature
•  judicious use of smoke emitting transport and paper
•  not to cut trees and use bicycles for transportation
•  stop every type of pollution as soon as possible by public awareness and funds.
   

This statement implies that human beings are overusing the natural resources of the Earth in the name of development. Earth provides enough resources to meet the needs of all but today’s man has become so greedy  that he for his progress and development he resorts to activities like deforestation, unsustainable fuel wood and fodder extraction, shifting cultivation encroachment into forest lands, indiscriminate use of agro -chemicals, extraction of groundwater in excess of recharge capacity, etc.

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Earth Summit, took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from June 2-14, 1992.

Government officials from 178 countries and between 20,000 and 30,000 individuals from governments, non-governmental organizations, and the media participated in this event to discuss solutions for global problems such as poverty, war, and the growing gap between industrialized and developing countries.

The central focus was on how to relieve the global environmental system through the introduction to the paradigm of sustainable development.

This concept emphasizes that economic and social progress depend critically on the preservation of the natural resource base with effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.