Before the middle of the nineteenth century, the countries in Europe were not in the form as we know them today. Different regions in Europe were ruled by various multi-national dynastic empires. These were monarchies which enjoyed absolute power over their subjects. Various technological and the ensuing social changes helped in developing the ideas of nationalism. The process of creation of nation states began in 1789; with the French Revolution. It took about hundred years for the idea to gain concrete shape which resulted in the formation of France as a democratic nation state. The trend was followed in other parts of the Europe and led to the establishment of the modern democratic systems in most parts of the world; at the beginning of 20th century.

Because salt is an essential food item, the British government’s monopoly of its production and the tax imposed on it affected Indians irrespective of class, caste and gender barriers. Hence, when Gandhi decided to break the Salt Law, the move mobilised a large portion of the Indian population against the colonial government. Also, during the Dandi march, Gandhi spread his message of swaraj to thousands of people through lectures and urged them to defy the British government. In this way, the ‘Salt March’ became an effective tool of resistance against colonialism. 

The Salt March, also known as the Dandi March and the Dandi Satyagraha, was an act of nonviolent civil disobedience in colonial India led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. The 24-day march lasted from 12 March 1930 to 6 April 1930 as a direct action campaign of tax resistance and nonviolent protest against the British salt monopoly. Mahatma Gandhi started this march with 78 of his trusted volunteers. Walking ten miles a day for 24 days, the march spanned over 240 miles, from Sabarmati Ashram, 240 miles (384 km) to Dandi, which was called Navsari at the time (now in the state of Gujarat). Growing numbers of Indians joined them along the way. When Gandhi broke the salt laws at 6:30 am on 6 April 1930, it sparked large scale acts of civil disobedience against the British Raj salt laws by millions of Indians.

Role of Mazzini in the unification of Italy were: 

(i) Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary, born in Genoa in 1807. 

(ii) He became member of various secret societies such as ‘Young Italy’ or ‘Young Europe’. 

(iii) He attempted revolution in Liguria. 

(iv) He wanted unification with wider alliance of nations. 

(v) He frightened conservatives through opposition of monarchy and vision of democratic republics. 

(vi) He favoured war for unification of Italy. 

(vii) He wanted Economic development and Political dominance.

Srilankan government adopted majoritarian measure to establish Sinhala Supremacy.in 1956, an Act was passed to recognise Sinhala as the only official language thus diregarding Tamil.
A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.
Srilankan Tamils felt that none of the major political parties by the Buddhist sinhala leaders were sensitive to their language and culture.
The relations between the Sinhala and Tamil communities strained overtime and soon it turned into a civil war.

HD Kote, with an area of 1,813 sqkm, is the largest taluk in the district. Villages like Chikkabragi, Gendathuru and Beguru were around 40 km away from H D Kote town, the taluk headquarters. Residents of these villages, bordering the forests, were finding it difficult to travel up to HD Kote town to visit government offices and for other work. So, the people of this region were demanding the formation of a new taluk with Sargur as headquarters for over five decades.

India has long tradition of food adulteration, black marketing, hoarding, underweighing, etc. It was from the 1960s that the consumer movement began in India. Till the 1970s, consumer movement was mainly restricted to writing articles and holding exhibitions. But there has been an upsurge in the number of consumer groups in recent times.

The level of dissatisfaction with the sellers and service providers was such an extent that the consumers had no choice but to raise their voice. After many years of organized struggle, the government was forced to take notice and finally the Consumer Protection Act (COPRA) was enacted in 1986.

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The amount by which the value of a country's exports exceeds the cost of its imports.

Four bases of economic development are
(j) Per capita income This is the total Nadonal Income (GDP) divided by the total population.
(ii) Life expectancy at birth This is the number of years, a new born child is expected to live if subject to the mortality risks prevailing for the population concerned.
(iii) Literacy rate This is the total percentagd~of the
population of an area at a particular time aged 7 yean or above, who can read and write with undemanding adeast one language.
(iv) Net Attendance Ratio The total number of children enrolled in or attending primary school, as a percentage of total number of children of primary school age.
The countries with high rates are developed and low are underdeveloped.

Sustainable development is important because of the reason that we may enjoy the gifts of nature but cannot think of our generations to live without such benefits. It becomes our duty to use nature for the fulfilment of our needs and not our greed. Our development should not hamper the needs of future generations.

In the case of groundwater, we have utilized it to the maximum. It is a natural resource which is replenished by nature. People living in the areas with surplus water reserves should take care for its conservation. Efforts should be made not to overuse or degrade the quality of water. Recent evidence shows that groundwater is under serious threat of disappearance. If suitable steps are not taken, it can pose serious consequences.

Count Camillo Cavour (1810-1861) was prime minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia from 1852 to 1859 and from 1860 to 1861. He played a leading part in the unification of Italy. Camillo Benso Cavour was an, 1810–61, Italian statesman, premier of the Kingdom of Sardinia.

The Poona Pact refers to an agreement between B. R. Ambedkar on behalf of Depressed class and caste Hindu leaders on the reservation of electoral seats for the depressed classes in the legislature of British India government.

The main features of "Poona Pact" were:

1. At the second Round Table conference, Dr. BR Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for Dalits.
2. When the British conceded Dr. Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhiji, who was opposed to this, went on a fast unto death. 
3. Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji’s position by signing a pact in 1932, known as the Poona Pact. 
4. The Poona Pact (September 1932) gave Depressed Classes (later to be known as Scheduled Caste) reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils.

There are many important factors other than income which needs to be considered before accepting a job. They are as follows:- 

1. Facilities for the family:  One would have to check whether there are good houses available in the locality and the locality is safe to stay in, whether it has good educational and medical facilities etc. 
2. Job security: As regards job security, one should look for clear terms of employment in the appointment letter. A job which gives high pay but no job security will reduce one's sense of security and freedom and people would not like to take up such jobs. 
3. Opportunity to learn: There should be an opportunity for personal career growth so that no boredom or stagnation sets in.
4. Working atmosphere needs to be cooperative and healthy: There should be good team spirit and the seniors should look after the newcomers and guide them. If women are engaged in paid work, their dignity in the household and society increases. A safe and secure environment may allow more women to take up jobs or run a business.
5. Time for one's family: Working hours should be fixed and adhered to so that there is time for spending with family.  Leave rules should be clear and well formulated.

1. Common goals : There are some needs which are common to all like freedom, income, equality, security, respect etc.
2. Different goals: Development or progress does not mean the same thing for every individual. Each individual has his own idea of development. For example development for a farmer may be better irrigation facilities; for an unemployed youth it may mean better employment opportunities etc.
3. Conflicting goals: What may be development for one, may not be development for other. For example poor workers want low priced foodgrains whereas rich farmers want a high price for their products etc.

Consumer International is basically a World federation comprising of consumer groups serving as the Global voice and forum for venting consumer concerns. Consumer international seeks to hold business organisation, corporations responsible and accountable for their acts.

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The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations, People's Spring, Springtime of the Peoples, or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history.
The revolutions were essentially bourgeois revolutions and democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation-states. The revolutions spread across Europe after an initial revolution began in France in February. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no significant coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries. Some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.

The two athletes at Mexico Olympic were John Carlos and Tommie Smith who had won the Gold and Bronze medals respectively.

Frederic Sorrieu is trying to depict a Utopian vision where the World is characterized by the following:

• World made up of democratic and secular Republics.
• People of Europe, America, men , women of all ages and classes marching together, paying homage to the statue of liberty.
• Remains of the symbols of absolutists monarchies.
• Sorrieu grouped people into different nations, with their distinct flags and costumes.
• US and Switzerland are leading the processions.
•  A female figure holding torch of enlightenment and charter of rights of the man.
• He is trying to give a sense of belonging to the people, a shared collective identity through the symbols.

1.new hymps were written..

2.Ideas of nationalism also developed through a movement to revive Indian folklore.

3.Gandhi ji formed swaraj flag..

4.Abanindra Nath Tagore ji painted the image of Bharat Mata

5 .REINTERPRETATION OF HISTORY also did as

many writer believed that indians have forgotten their glorious past

so Many writers wrote about the glorious developments in ancient times when art and architecture, science and mathematics,religion, etc had flourished.

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Project Tiger was launched by Indian government in 1973. It is one of the most famous wildlife conservation project of India.The main aim of the project is to protect diminishing population of Royal Bengal tigers of India.
The project has to maintain two types of areas namely core zones and buffer zones. Core zones are totally free form human settlements. Bufferzones are the lands used for conserving the species of Tiger.