The concept of modern state was a centralized power exercised sovereign control over a clearly defined territory.

• The ideology of liberalism was important factor which promoted the sense of nationalism, and the nationstate.
• For the new middle classes liberalism stood for the freedom of the individual and equality of all befpre the law.
• Politically it meant the concept of govt. by consent.
• For some it meant having the right to have private properly
• In the economic sphere, liberalism stood for the freedom of markets. the traders demanded free movement of goods and capital.

The treatment meted out by the British government to the Caliph of Turkey after First World War disturbed the Indian Muslims (he was their religious head). As a result, they started the Khilafat Movement under the leadership of the Ali brothers, Maulana Azad, Hasrat Mohani, etc. Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to achieve the much desired Hindu-Muslim unity and made efforts to make common cause with the Khilafat leaders. He was elected as the President of the All-India Khilafat Conference in 1919 and advised the Khilafat Committee to adopt a policy of non-cooperation with the British government. The Khilafat leaders agreed and campaigned accordingly. Thus, the Khilafat Movement furthered the cause of the Non-cooperation Movement.

(i) Chawls were multi storeyed structure had been built from atleast the l860s in the native parts of the town.
(ii) Like the tenements in London, these houses were largely owned by private landlords, such as merchants, bankers, and building contractors, looking for quick ways of earning money from anxious migrants.
(iii) Each chawl was divided into smaller one- room tenements which had no private toiler.

Per capita income or average income measures the average income earned per person in a given area (city, region, country, etc.) in a specified year. It is calculated by dividing the area's total income by its total population.
Per capita income is generally used as an index for classifying the development of a country but it has the following limitations:

• It does not tell us whether there is equal or unequal distribution of income in a country.
• Apart from per capita income, there are other important aspects of developments such as literacy and health ratio of the people in a country.

Partly due to social reformers and political leaders’ efforts and partly due to other socio-economic changes, castes and caste system in modem India have undergone great changes.
With economic development, large-scale urbanisation, growth of literacy and education, occupational mobility and the weakening of the position of landlords in the villages, the old notions of caste hierarchy are breaking down. Now most of the times, in urban areas, it does not matter much who is walking along next to us on a street or eating at the next table in a restaurant. The Constitutiom of India prohibited any caste-based discrimination. If a person who lived a century ago were to return to India, he/she would be greatly surprised at the change that has come about in the country.

Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation:

1. The shaping of nationalist feeling and its expression was helped by art and poetry, stories and music.
2. Romantic artists and poets generally strongly criticised reason and science in their glorified forms.
3. The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore, recovered an ancient national spirit, as well as carried the modern nationalist message to large audiences that were mostly illiterate.

The Consumer Movement is an effort to promote consumer protection through an organized social movement which is in many places led by consumer organizations.

The problem of double counting is the problem of estimating the value of goods and services more than once. Value of intermediate goods is not included in the estimation of gross domestic product because value of intermediate goods is reflected in the value of final goods. For e.g. a farmer sold wheat to flour mill for Rs 10 per kg. The mill grinds the wheat and sold the flour to a biscuit company for Rs 12 per kg. The biscuit company uses the flour, sugar and butter to make 5 biscuit packets. These biscuits are sold to consumer at Rs 15 per biscuit packet (Rs 75). Here biscuits are the final goods which are purchased by the consumer. Wheat and wheat flour are the intermediate goods used in the production of final good. The value of biscuit, Rs 15 includes the value of flour, Rs 12. Hence, only the value of final goods and services are taken into consideration.  

Only final goods and services are included while calculating National Income because:
(a) Final goods are those goods which have crossed the boundary line of production and are ready for final consumption and investment.
(b) The value of final goods already includes the value of all the intermediate goods that are used in making the final goods. This would lead to the problem of double counting if all the goods of the economy will be included while calculating national income.
(c) This should be avoided because if the value of any commodity is counted more than once it will result in overestimation of national income.

• Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.
• The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821.
• Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.
• Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire.
• The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824.
• Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

Resources can be classified on different bases; into following types:

• On the basis of origin: Biotic and Abiotic
• On the basis of exhaustibility: Renewable and Non-renewable
• On the basis of ownership: Individual, community, national and international
• On the basis of status of development: Potential, Developed, Stock and Reserves

By separate electorates implies people belonging to one religious community ?vote for a candidate?of their own religion. The British used this system to divide the people of India, it was part of their divide and rule policy . This system helped the British to pit both the communities that Hindus and Muslims against each other ,eventually leading to the partition of the country in 1947.
Gandhiji was against it because he knew that this will slow down the unification process of India.

Although the invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg did not stop the production of handwritten books, it did bring about a paradigm shift in the production process and the reading patterns. Between 1450 and 1550, the printing press spread to almost all countries of Europe. Printers from Germany even migrated to other parts of the continent, seeking work and setting up presses. As the number of printing presses increased, book production skyrocketed, flooding the market with books. This transition from hand printing to mechanical printing is referred to as 'print revolution'. 

The term 'orient' means 'east'. The term east is used to represent the traditional techniques, knowledge and so on as compared to the west which is considered as modern. The term 'modern' implies to something that is new and follows a different path then the traditional approach. Both terms are used in contrast to each other.