a. The success of a federal regime in India  can be attributed to many factors.
b. Besides political, power sharing arrangements between the centre and the states other factors /policies that are equally important to keep federal structure intact.
c. There is a clear separation of power between the centre and the states, by virtue of a written constitution.
d. The powers are divided between the centre and the state, there is a union list on which centre can legislate, there is a state list on which state can make laws and then concurrent list where both the centre and the states can make laws.
e. We have a Bicameral legislature that is the Union Parliament consists of two house one representing the country and the other representing the interests of constituent states.

Main Features of Federalism :

(i) There are two or more levels of government. India has three levels.
(ii) Each level of government has its own jurisdiction in matters of legislation, taxation and administration even though they govern the same citizens.
(iii) Powers and functions of each tier of government is specified and guaranteed by Constitution.
(iv) The Supreme Court has been given power to settle disputes between federal governments.
(v) Fundamental provisions of Constitution cannot be altered by any one level of government. It applies to India also.
(vi) Sources of revenue between different levels is specified by Constitution.
(vii) There is mutual trust and agreement between the government at different levels.

- After a failed round table conference, Gandhiji launched the civil disobedience movement.
- In retaliation by the British government,  Indian leaders were arrested, angry crowds demonstrated in the streets of Peshawar, facing armoured cars and police firing.
- Hundreds of people were killed.
- A month later, Gandhiji himself was arrested, industrial workers attacked police posts, government buildings, law courts and railway stations and various structures that were directly working for the British rule.
- Even the peaceful satyagrahis were attacked, women and children were beaten, and about 100,000 people were arrested.
- To break the deadline between Congress and the government Lord Irwin invited Gandhiji for a peace pact that was called Gandhi—Irwin pact.
- As a consequence to the above reasons, Gandhiji decided to call off the movement.

The horizontal power sharing

• Power is shared among different organs of government such as the legislature, executive and judiciary.
• Organs of the government are placed at the same level to exercise different powers.
• Each organ observes the other.

The vertical sharing power,

• Power is shared among the different levels of the governments.
• Power involves the highest and the lower levels of government.
• The lower organs work under the higher organs

Sri Lanka comprises various communities and diverse population which signifies its complex ethnicity like:

1. Sinhalese make up 74% of the population and are concentrated in the densely populated southwest. They enjoy majoritarian status in the country.
2. Another community is Tamil speaking which has two sub-groups:
   1. Sri Lankan Tamils were 13%. They are the natives of Sri Lanka.
   2. The Indian Tamils account for 5%. They are of Indian origin.
   3. Most of the Sinhala-speaking people are Buddhists, while most of the Tamils are Hindus or Muslims. 
   4. About 7% of the population is Christians (both Tamils and Sinhalas).
   5. Rest 1% are Muslims.

National development refers to the ability of a county to increase its GDP and improve the lives and social welfare of the people. For example, by providing social amenities such as quality education, potable water, transportation, infrastructure and medical care, the government can attain the goal of national development. 

Consumer Protection Act 1986, a major step taken in 1986 by the Indian government was the enactment of the Consumer Protection Act, popularly known as COPRA.

1. It applies to all goods and services.
2. It covers all sectors, i.e., private, public and cooperative.
3. This Act provides many rights to consumers. These rights are related to safety, information, choice, representation, redressal, education etc.
4. This Act provides safety to consumers regarding defective products, dissatisfactory services and unfair trade practices. So under the purview of this Act, there is a provision to ban all those activities which can cause a risk for the consumer.
5. Established consumer protection councils at centre and state levels.
6. Under COPRA, three-tier quasi-judicial machinery at district, state and national levels was set-up for redressal of consumer disputes. The Act has enabled the consumers to have the right to represent in the consumer courts. The enactment of COPRA has led to the setting up of separate departments of consumer affairs in central and state governments.

1. Power sharing among the different organs of government (Horizontal power sharing). In a democracy, power is shared among the different organs of the government such as the legislature, executive and the judiciary. This is called the horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of the government placed at the same level to exercise different powers. Under this kind of power sharing arrangement, one can exercise unlimited powers. Each organ has its own powers, and it can also check the powers of other. So this results in a balance of power among the various institutions.
2. Power sharing among governments at different levels : Under this, people choose separate governments at separate levels, for example, a general local government for the entire country and local governments at the provincial, sub-national or regional levels. Such a general government for the entire country is usually called a Federal government.
3. Power sharing among different social groups : In a democracy, especially, in a multi-ethnic society, power is also shared among social groups such as the religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement. In some countries, there are constitutional and legal arrangements whereby socially weaker sections and women are represented in the legislatures and the administration.
4. Power sharing among political parties, pressure groups and movements : In a democracy, power is also shared among different political parties, pressure groups and movements. Democracy provides the citizens a choice to choose their rulers. This choice is provided by the various political parties, who contest elections to win them. Such competition ensures that power does not remain in one hand

Washing away of the top soil by different agents of gradation and human activities is called soil erosion.
Soil conservation is a methodology to maintain soil fertility, prevent soil erosion and exhaustion, and improve the degraded condition of the soil.

Municipal Corporation -

• Municipal corporations are established for administration of big cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad etc.
• They are established in the states by the acts of State Legislatures, and in the union territories by the acts of the Parliament.
• There may be one common acts or separate acts for all the municipal corporations in a state.
• A municipal corporation has three authorities - the council, the standing committees and the municipal commissioner.
• The Council is the deliberative and legislative wing and consists of the Councilors directly elected by the people.
• They also have few nominated persons having knowledge or experience of municipal administration.
• The Council is headed by a Mayor and assisted by Deputy Mayor.
• Mayor is elected in a majority of the states for a one-year renewable term.
• He is basically a formal head of the corporation.
• His main function is to preside over the meetings of the Council.
• The standing committees are created to facilitate the working of the council, which is too large in size.
• They deal with public works, education, health, taxation, finance etc,. and take decisions in their fields.
• The municipal commissioner implements the decisions taken by the council and its standing committees.
• He is the chief executive authority of the corporation.
• He is appointed by the state government and is mostly a member of the IAS.

Municipality -

• Municipalities are established for administration of towns and smaller cities.
• They are set up in the states by the acts of state legislatures and in the union territory by the acts of the Parliament of India.
• They are also known by various other names like municipal council, municipal committee, municipal board, borough municipality, city municipality and others.
• A municipality has three authorities - the council, the standing committees and the chief executive officer.
• The council is the deliberative and legislative wing of the municipality.
• It consists of the councilors directly elected by the people.
• The council is headed by a president/chairman and is assisted by a Vice-President/Vice-Chairman.
• Apart from presiding over the meetings of the Council, he enjoys executive powers.
• The standing committees are created to facilitate the working of the council.
• They deal with public works, taxation, health, finance etc.
• The chief executive officer/chief municipal officer is responsible for day-to-day general administration of the municipality.
• He is appointed by the state government.

(i) Trade guilds were associations of producers that trained craft people, maintained control over production, regulated competition and prices
(ii)They enjoyed monopoly rights to produce and trade in specific products
(iii) They also had the right to restrict the entry of new producers into the trade.

1. Countries with per capita income of Rs 453000 per annum and above in2004 in developed countries.
2. Standard of living and literacy level is high in developed countries.
E.g.. UK, USA, Japan.

Power sharing in Belgium was an example of a marvelous sharing of power among various groups to avoid any sort of conflict between them. The problem existing there was that the community having majority in the entire country , i.e. Dutch was in minority in the capital Brussels. So, it was an invitation to disputes between Dutch and French(which was in monority in the country but was in majority in Bussels). The government of Belgium then brought four amendments in the constitution.

1. There would be an equal number of ministers of each group in the central government.

2. The state government will be given some major powers, so that it doesn 't remain subordinate to central govt.

3. A community government will be formed for each group including germans which will solve issues related to language, culture etc.

4. A separate govt. for the capital will be formed (just like we have in Delhi) where also the number of ministers representing both the groups will be same.

Project on :-   
                     Consumption and Conservation of resources 

Firstly Resources are the god gifted material or things . We use them in our daily life or daily routine . For example use of petrol in car for travelling. It is very important in our life. The earth on which we live is also a resource which is very important for the living , the water , wind , trees etc are very important. Resources are of two types.

                                          Resource        
                                       /                   \
                                      /                      \
                                    /                         \
                     1)Renewable              2)Non-Renewable

1)Renewable Resources  are those resources which can be renewed in short period of time like water , trees etc

2)Non-Renewable Resources  are those resources which cannot be renewed in short period of time like coal petroleum etc.

Consumption of Resources 
We take all the basic necessary need from the nature as a resource. But now due the overpopulation the consumption of these resources is also increasing.We are overusing and over exploiting these resources.

Why we need to conserve these resources ?

Conservation is the process for the prevention of natural resources. It is the sum total of activities which have both advantage and disadvantage. If we use them carefully it will definitely profit us and excessive use will lead to destruction in our life.
                           1) We need to conserve resource so that to maintain the ecological balance between human and plants for supporting life.

2)We conserve resources for sustainable management

3)For different kind of biodiversity.

As a responsible citizen we should conserve these resource 
1)Water
2)Soil
3)Biodiversity
4)Forests.

ndia has a multi-cultural and multi-religious society where protection of forests and wildlife is a part of their daily life. Contributions by these communities towards the protection of forests and wildlife can be explained as given below:

1. The inhabitants of five villages in Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared 1200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their own set of rules and regulations which do not allow hunting, and are protecting the wildlife against any outside encroachments.

2. Some trees are considered sacred by different communities e.g. the Mundas and Santhals of Chotanagpur region worship Mahua and Kadamba trees, and the tribals of Orissa and Bihar worship the Tamarind and Mango trees during weddings.

3. In and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, herds of blackbuck, nilgai and peacock can be seen as an integral part of the community and no one harms them.

4. The <i>Chipko Movement</i> in Uttaranchal has successfully resisted cutting of trees as forests are home to different communities and hilly people.