Giuseppe Mazzini He was an Italian revolutionary, who was born in Genoa in 1807. He was sent into exile at the age of 24 in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He founded two secret societies, namely Young Italy and Young Europe. He inspired the young members of these societies to involve in revolutionary activities.
Following his ideas and on the model of his secret societies, more such societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Austrian Chancellor Duke Matternich once described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

(a) In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia. It was joined by most of the German States.
(b) The aim of zollverein was to bind the Germans economically into a nation. The Union abolished the tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to only two.
It helped to awaken and raise national sentiment through a fusion of individual and provincial interests. The German people realised that a free economic system was the only means to engender national feeling.

(a) In 1834, a customs union or zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia. It was joined by most of the German States.
(b) The aim of zollverein was to bind the Germans economically into a nation. The Union abolished the tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to only two.
It helped to awaken and raise national sentiment through a fusion of individual and provincial interests. The German people realised that a free economic system was the only means to engender national feeling.

In India the feeling of nationalism is associated with anti colonial movement . In the process of their struggle against the colonial yoke people began to discover their own identity of belonging to one nation. By the end of Nineteenth century anti-colonial Movement in most of the colonies led to the growth of nationalism. The colonial exploitation led to poverty and caused miseries to the people. The shared a common hatred against the colonial rule. In colonies the people began to discover their unity in the process of their struggle against colonialism. Each section of the society felt the effects of colonialism. The British policy of racialism and that of divide and rule exposed the nature of their rule and created the feeling of oneness among Indians. They felt the sense of common hatred against colonial rule.

A credit is an accounting entry that either increases a liability or equity account, or decreases an asset or expense account.

The banks might not be willing to lend certain borrowers  for the following reasons:

1. Banks require proper documents and collateral as security against loans. A number of borrowers have no collateral to pledge against loans, particularly small farmers requiring crop loans. 
2.  Repayment of such a loan is crucially dependent on the income from selling the crop. Since there is a risk involved (in case the crop yield is inadequate for any reason), banks are not willing to lend to such borrowers who cannot pledge collateral which can be sold to recover the loan amount in case of default in paying the loan amount.
3.  The borrowers who have not repaid previous loans, the banks might not be willing to lend them further.
4.  The banks might not be willing to lend those entrepreneurs who are going to invest in the business with high risks.

The Non-Cooperation Movement slowed down in the cities for various reasons like:

1. Khadi cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill cloth and poor people could not afford to buy it. So people could not boycott mill cloth for very long.
2. The boycott of British institutions posed a problem as there were no alternative national institutions to fulfil educational needs.
3. The students and teachers trickled to government schools. The lawyers joined government courts
4. With all these, the enthusiasm of people in the cities lost their force.

Consumer awareness is the necessity of the hour whether it is about your rights, the information about the product or anything else that can change the mind-set of the other buyers.

There is no doubt that consumer awareness is quite more in the present time and has helped a lot in bringing the transformation.

We need to conserve and manage water resources as-

1. Water is essential for life. So, there is a need to conserve water resources.
2. We need to ensure food security.
3. We need water for continuation of our livelihood and productive activities.
4. We need water to safeguard ourselves from health hazards.

1. Potential and Developed

1. Stock and Reserves Resources.

In India the feeling of nationalism is associated with anti colonial movement . In the process of their struggle against the colonial yoke people began to discover their own identity of belonging to one nation. By the end of Nineteenth century anti-colonial Movement in most of the colonies led to the growth of nationalism. The colonial exploitation led to poverty and caused miseries to the people. The shared a common hatred against the colonial rule. In colonies the people began to discover their unity in the process of their struggle against colonialism. Each section of the society felt the effects of colonialism. The British policy of racialism and that of divide and rule exposed the nature of their rule and created the feeling of oneness among Indians. They felt the sense of common hatred against colonial rule.

Gandhiji converted the National Movement into a Mass Movement by:

1. His simple and saintly life and style of convincing the masses made him popular.
2. His undisputed leadership and magnetic personality.
3. His policy of non-violent Satyagraha.
4. His movements like Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements had mass effects.
5. His programmes of social reforms like fighting against untouchability were highly appealing.
6. His commitment to Hindu-Muslim unity gave force and shape to the national movement.

(i) Muslim clergy want to introduce religious reforms in Islam.

(ii) In north India, the ulama were deeply anxious about the collapse of Muslim dynasties. 

(iii) They feared that colonial rulers would encourage conversion, change the Muslim personal laws. 

(iv) To counter this, they used cheap lithographic presses, published Persian and Urdu translations of holy scriptures and printed religious newspapers and tracts. 

(v) The Deoband Seminary, founded in 1867, published thousands upon thousands of fatwas. 

(vi) Telling Muslim readers how to conduct themselves in their everyday lives, and explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines.

Communalism can pose a great threat to Indian democracy as: 

(i) It leads to the belief that people belonging to different religions cannot live as equal citizens within one nation. Either one of them has to dominate the rest or they have to form different nations. 

(ii) Any attempt to bring followers of one religion together in a context other than religion is bound to suppress many voices within that community.

Gandhiji wanted to make use of salt tax as a powerful means to strengthen the nationalist movement and unite Indians against the British Government.

Hence, Gandhiji wrote a letter to Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India on 31st January 1930 consisting of eleven demands.

The eleven demands that were in the ultimatum are as follows:

a. Reduction in the rate of land revenue

b. Abolition of salt tax

c. Changes in the exchange ratio of rupees and sterling

d. The release of all political prisoners

e. Levy of customs on Foreign cloth

f. Reduction in civil administration expenses

g. Reduction in military expenditure

h. Prohibition of Intoxicants

i. Acceptance of Postal Reservation Bill

j. Abolition of CID department

k. The issue of licences of arms to citizens for self-protection.

Gandhiji had mentioned that if his demands were turned down, he would launch a nationalist movement. But Lord Irwin showed reluctance and Gandhiji started the Civil Disobedience Movement.

The limits of Civil Disobedience Movement were:

• The Congress ignored the dalits for fear of offending the sanatanis, the conservative high-caste Hindus. Also, Mahatma Gandhi called the untouchables  the children of God.
• Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who organised the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Mahatma Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference by demanding separate electorates for dalits.
• This made the dalit apprehensive regarding the Congress led national movement.
• Decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement, made a large section of Muslim feel alienated from the Congress. Thus, the response of Muslim political organisations in India was lukewarm.
• However, Muhammad Jinnah, one of the leaders of the Muslim League, was willing to give up the demand for separate electorates, if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in the Muslim-dominated provinces (Bengal and Punjab).
• Hence, the start of Civil Disobedience Movement created an atmosphere of suspicion and distrust between communities.

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