cover thinly with gold.

When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local government, it is called decentralisation.

• Decentralisation helps in solving a large number of problems and issues at the local level.
• People have better knowledge of problems in their localities and hence they are the best resources to solve problems.
• They also have better ideas on where to spend money and how to manage things more efficiently
• Besides, at the local level it is possible for the people to directly participate in decision making. This helps to inculcate a habit of democratic participation
• Local government is the best way to realise one important principle of democracy, namely local self-government.

Some information about this right as follows:

•The Constitution guarantees that all citizens will be equally protected by the laws of the country.

• According to this right the government shall not discriminate against any Citizen on Grounds of religion, cast, ethnicity, *** or place of birth.

•Every citizen should have access to public places like shops, hotels, restaurants and cinema halls.

•There should be no restrictions with regard to use of well, tanks, playground or any other place of public Resorts maintained by government or dedicated to use of general public.

•All citizens of equality of opportunity in matters related to employment, appointment to any position in government or education.

Consolidation of holdings means the bring together in one compact block all plots of land farmer which are scattered all over the villa.

• Food Crops (Wheat, Maize, Rice, Millets and Pulses etc.)
• Cash Crops (Sugarcane, Tobacco, Cotton, Jute and Oilseeds etc.)

You can check the syllabus here : https://mycbseguide.com/cbse-syllabus.html

• Different levels of the government exercise the power of the government
• No specification of the system of checks and balance.
• It ensures the concept of deepening of democracy.
• Central Government, State Government and Panchayat Raj are the example of the Vertical division of Power Sharing.

National development refers to the ability of a nation to improve the lives of its citizens. Measures of improvement may be material, such as an increase in the gross domestic product, or social, such as literacy rates and availability of healthcare.

(i) Stock:

(a) They are found in the environment.

(b) They are not accessed due to the lack of technology.

(c) Example: Water is a compound o{ two inflammable gases-hydrogen and oxygen, which can be used as a rich source of energy. But we do not have the required technical know-how Io use them for this purpose.

(ii) Potential resources:

(a) They are found in a region.

(b) They have not been utilized or developed.

(c) Example: Rajasthan and Gujarat have enormous potential for the development of wind and solar energy but they are yet to be developed for various reasons.

Liberal Nationalism stood for many things- individual freedom, equality before the law, representative government & constitution as well as the inviolability of private property. Liberal Nationalists in the economic sphere:

1. Liberalism stood for freedom of markets. They wanted to remove all restrictions of state on the movement of goods and capital.

2. Napoleon's regime had created different currencies, weights, measures and customs duties for each state. Liberalists wanted a unified economic territory.

3. A customs union from Prussia that was joined by many German states removed all tariffs and reduced the currencies from thirty to two.

4. The economic nationalism and unification further contributed to the nationalist sentiments.

(i) Preservation and restoration of ecological balance. Existing forests will be folly protected and their productivity will be improved. Forest cover on hill slopes and catchment areas of rivers Will be increased.
(ii) A network of Wildlife and bird Sanctuaries, National Parks, biosphere reserves and other protected areas will be extended and better managed.
(iii) Soil erosion and denudation of catchment areas of water bodies will be checked.
(iv) The people will be actively involved in programmes of protection, conservation and management of the forests. The basic requirements of the rural and tribal people for forest products will be maintained.
(v) Increasing forest areas by afforestation and social forestry.

Role of Mazzini in the unification of Italy were: 

(i) Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary, born in Genoa in 1807. 

(ii) He became member of various secret societies such as ‘Young Italy’ or ‘Young Europe’. 

(iii) He attempted revolution in Liguria. 

(iv) He wanted unification with wider alliance of nations. 

(v) He frightened conservatives through opposition of monarchy and vision of democratic republics. 

(vi) He favoured war for unification of Italy. 

(vii) He wanted Economic development and Political dominance.

Companies which are run and financed by the Government comprise the public sector. After independence, India was a very poor country. India needed huge amount of money to set up manufacturing plants for basic items like iron and steel, aluminium, fertilizers and cements. Additionally, infrastructure like roads, railways, ports and airports also require huge investment. In those days, Indian entrepreneur was not cash rich so government had to start creating big public sector enterprises like SAIL (Steel Authority of India Limited), ONGC(Oil & Natural Gas Commission), etc.

Boycott: To cripple the trade of colonial government,Mahatma Gandhi advocated the method of boycott or negative .
Swadeshi movement: The term "Swadeshi"means the use of indigenous goods or domestic goods.The concept was used by Mahatma Gandhi to wage non-violent war against the British government.He knew that the main interest of the British in India was trade.He asked the people to boycott the foreign goods & use the goods made in India.

1) The  non cooperation movement at the countryside was against the talukdars who demanded for high rents and other cesses from peasants.

2)Peasants were even forced to do begar. The tenants had no security of tenure and they were regularly evicted.

3)At the countryside the movement was led by Baba Ramchandra.

4) Peasants demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar and they boycotted the oppressive landlords.

5)House of talukdars were attacked, bazaars were looted, grain hoards were taken away.

6)Tribal peasants in Andhra Pradesh rebelled against the forest laws that had prevented their entry in the forests.

7) Pt.Nehru became actively involved in Indias' freedom struggle from 1912 and became associated with non cooperation movement in 1920.

8)He also took a round of the village in Awadh trying to understand local problems and later founded ​Oudh Kisan Sabha together with Baba Ramchandra.

9) Pt. Nehru acknowledged and appreciated the peasants in their struggle against exploitation, who fought for justice and fairness.,

10)He appreciated that peasant upheld with conviction values and ideals of non violence.

11) However, The way peasant movement took turn , disappointed Congress leaders.

12)Inspired by Gandhi's call for non cooperation,.Peasants demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords.House of talukdars were attacked, bazaars were looted, grain

Unification of Germany:

• The  newly  emerged  middle  class  in  Germany  in  1848  tried  to  unite  several German  kingdoms which  were  suppressed  by  monarchies  and  large  landowners into one nation state governed by an elected body.
• Prussia, a German kingdom, took the leadership in uniting various German states. Otto  von  Bismarck,  the  Chief  Minister  of  Prussia, aimed  to  achieve  the  goal  of unification with the help of the Prussian army and the bureaucracy.
• Spread over seven years, the Prussian army with the help of the Austrian, French and Danish armies fought three wars and successfully incorporated all the small German kingdoms. This marked the process of completion of German unification.
• The  German  unification  was  completed  in  1871  and  in  the  same  year William I was  declared  as  the emperor of Germany at the Palace of Versailles.
• The process of the unification of Germany exhibited the power of the Prussian state. Many new reforms were initiated in banking, currency, administration and judiciary in Germany.

Different people have different development goals

• Development involves many questions for better life and the ways in which one can work to achieve goals
• Since every individual is different from the other, the notion of development also varies.
• The difference in social and economic positions of the people generally results in different goals of development.

For example,

• Development goals of landless rural labour: he may seek to earn more wages  
• Development goals of farmers who depend on rain for growing crops: he may expect more rain to grow crops well for his livelihood  
• Development goals of children pursing for higher education in abroad: Children may work hard to score good marks and to go abroad for higher education.