Unification of Germany:

• The  newly  emerged  middle  class  in  Germany  in  1848  tried  to  unite  several German  kingdoms which  were  suppressed  by  monarchies  and  large  landowners into one nation state governed by an elected body.
• Prussia, a German kingdom, took the leadership in uniting various German states. Otto  von  Bismarck,  the  Chief  Minister  of  Prussia, aimed  to  achieve  the  goal  of unification with the help of the Prussian army and the bureaucracy.
• Spread over seven years, the Prussian army with the help of the Austrian, French and Danish armies fought three wars and successfully incorporated all the small German kingdoms. This marked the process of completion of German unification.
• The  German  unification  was  completed  in  1871  and  in  the  same  year William I was  declared  as  the emperor of Germany at the Palace of Versailles.
• The process of the unification of Germany exhibited the power of the Prussian state. Many new reforms were initiated in banking, currency, administration and judiciary in Germany.

Steps that should be taken to reform the political parties in India are:

• A law should be made to regulate the internal affairs of political parties. It should be made compulsory for political parties to maintain a register of its members, to follow its own constitution and to have an independent authority.
• It should be made mandatory for political parties to give a minimum number of tickets, about one-third, to women candidates. Similarly, there should be a quota for women in the decision making bodies of the party.
• There should be state funding of elections. The government should give parties money to support their election expenses. 
• A strict law should be passed by the Court prohibiting any person with criminal charges from contesting in elections. 

Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian nationalist revolutionary who fought for Italian independence and political unification. In 1848, he played an important role in the movement for Italian freedom by organising the Red Shirts, a corps of volunteers. He also formed an alliance with Victor Emanuel, the king of Sardinia, and Count Cavour. Because of his popularity, a large number of Italians pledged their allegiance to the king of Sardinia. Later in 1859, Garibaldi launched a campaign against Austria. He conquered Sicily and Naples in 1860. Soon, there was a revolt in the Papal States and they joined the fledgling Italian Republic. As a result of this unification, a united Italy was finally established in 1861 with Victor Emanuel as its king.

Gandhi ji proposed that the movement should unfold in stages:

• 1st Stage: Surrender of titles that the government awarded.
• 2nd Stage: Boycott of civil services, army, police, courts and legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.
• 3rd Stage: Then, in case the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.

1. Recognition of the principle of equality becomes easier to wage a struggle against what is now unacceptable legally.
2. The right to vote has given the right to all the adults to vote and thus express their views.
3. Democracy has strengthened the equal opportunities and equal castes for all. It is the recognition that makes ordinary citizens value their democratic rights.

The nai dhobi bandhs:it a situation where the peasants were against talukdars in Awadh & landlords due to they were seriously interested in high rent & variety of other access.Led by Baba Lamchandra a sanyasi who earlier had been to Fiji as an indentured labourer.The peasant therefore started the move of nai dhobi banghs in so many areas.The bandhs were organised by panchayat to deprive landlords of the services of even barbers & washermen.
The Begar:its a situation where somebody work without completely being compensated ie there wasn't any food grains,wages,& any other form of payment.Most of the peasants in Awadh were working on the fields of talukdars & landlords portraying to be beggars.The peasants were therefore endulged in life of tenants without any kind of security,of tenure being evicted to them so that they couldn't acquire any right over the leased land.
Baba Ramchandra had to raise voice over this  & his idea was to form a peasant movement with the following grievances:
-Reduction of revenue.
-Abolition of begar.
-Social boycott of oppressive landlords.

a. With reference to your query , it is important for you to understand the context of debt crisis that occurred in the 1970's.
b. It is not that these international financial institutions like IMF ,and World Bank led to severe debt crisis in the Third World countries.
c. These institutions did offer loans to the developing world to assist them in development.
d. Debt  crisis of the developing nations was the result of the interplay of market forces and global factors.
e. It can be attributed to the oil crisis that surfaces in 1973-74 whereby there was increase in the price of oil, putting an excessive burden on the economies of the Third World .
f. The increased demand for oil from the developing nations to support their industrial development and other needs, plus the increased prices of oil and limited supply from OPEC countries, compelled the developing nations to borrow from commercial banks .

No, I don’t believe that democracies lead to a just distribution of goods and opportunities because:

1. There is a growth in economic inequality, even after individuals having political equality. This leads to rich becoming richer and poor remaining poorer. Some ultra rich people enjoy disproportionate share of wealth and incomes, while the poor faces only poverty.
2. The income level of the people at the bottom is declining, which makes it difficult for them to meet their basic needs of housing, clothing, food, education and health. 
3. Even after the poor people being the large proportion of voters and the party unwilling to lose their votes, the poor has to face various poverty problems which the government never appears to address. 

Mahatma Gandhiji extended his support to the Khilafat movement which strengthened it. He supported this movement for these reasons:

1. The limitations of the Rowlatt Satyagraha which was mostly in cities and towns necessitated a widespread movement.

2. Gandhiji wanted to unite Hindus and Muslims. He felt their unity will pave the way to strengthen the nationalist movement.

3. The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey, and there were rumours that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on the Ottoman Emperor.

4. To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.

5. A young generation of Muslim leaders like the brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali began discussing with Mahatma Gandhi about the possibility of a united mass action.

Hence, Gandhiji convinced the other leaders to began Non-Cooperation movement at the Calcutta session of the Congress in 1920.

Impact of Jallianwala Bagh massacre:

1. News of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre spread like fire and people all over North India started to protest.

2. Police and government building were attacked by the people and they went on strikes.

3. The colonial government reacted with brutal repression. Satyagrahis were humiliated by rubbing the nose on the ground, crawling and saluting the officers.

4. People were flogged and villages were bombed by the government.

5. Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement because of the rapid spread of violence.

• Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary who founded two underground societies; first Young Italy in Marseilles and then Young Europe in Berne.
• Giuseppe Mazzini was an important figure in liberal natioanlism. He made a significant contribution to the unification of Italy.
• By 1830, Giuseppe Mazzini put forward a coherent programme of a unitary Italian Republic formed a secret society named Young Italy to inspire them with ideas of unification.
• Inspired by Mazzini several Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
• He inspired the youth of Italy with natioanlist ideas.
• He believed God intended nations to be natural units of mankind and Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms.
• He founded the underground secret societies Youth Italy Italy and Young Europe to involve the youth in revolutionary activities.

It is the transportation of goods or material through a pipe.
merits :
1. most convenient and efficient.
2. Energy consumption.
demerits :
1. difficult to repair and detection of leakage.
2. limited capacity.

Roadways score over railways due to the following reasons:

• Construction cost of roads is much lower than that of railway lines.
• Roads can traverse comparatively in more dissected and undulating topography.
• Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and as such can traverse mountains such as the Himalayas.
• Road transport is economical in the transportation of few persons and relatively small amounts of goods over short distances.
• It also provides door-to-door service. Thus, the cost of loading and unloading is much lower.
• Road transport is also used as a feeder to other modes of transport such as they provide link between railway stations, air and sea ports.

• Lifelines of a human being are his veins. They carry blood in all the parts the body and keep them hale and hearty.
• Likewise means of transport and comunication bring all the regions of a country closer and develop them equally.
• The means of transportation and communication are called the lifelines of a nation and its economy because they are the preconditions for progress and development.
• A country 's economy depends not only on the production and sale of goods and services, but on their transport as well
• A country makes tremendous progress because of its developed means of transport and communication. Without these all the developmental activities will come to an end and the country would meet its doom.

The government has launched a major road development project linking Delhi-Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi is known as Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways.

• Under Super Highways, the North-South corridor and East-West corridor are included.
• They all are six-lane Super Highways.
• The North-South Corridors links Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir in the North with Kanyakumari in the south in Tamil Nadu.
• East-West corridor Connecting silcher in Assam and Porbander in Gujarat.
• These Super Highways reduce the time and distance between the mega cities and related terminals

Caste Division. Well, most countries have Gender division, economic division and religious division.

Politics in Caste

The caste system in India can also become politicised in the following ways:

• When a particular caste tries to gain prominence by adding many neighbouring castes and sub-castes which were earlier not included.
• The caste system also becomes politicised when caste groups are required to enter into a coalition with other castes. In such a case, every caste tries to gain maximum benefits for itself.
• Of late, many caste groups have gained entry into politics by terming themselves as ‘backward’ or ‘forward’ caste groups.

It is to be noticed that the existence of the caste system is itself not healthy for any democracy. It mostly produces negative results. In India, it has resulted in the vicious circle of poverty, unemployment and illiteracy for many castes. The caste system may also lead to caste division, caste violence and conflicts resulting in violence.