The political conditions of Europe as follows : (i) The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe.
(ii) In most countries, there were more job seekers than employment. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
(iii) Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine made goods from England, where industrialisation was more advanced than on the continent.
(iv) In these regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
(v) The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.

Judiciary plays an important role by ensuring that the constitutional provisions and procedures related to federalism are implemented. In case any disputes arise between the centre and the state governments in this regard, the High Courts and the Supreme Court take a decision in confirmation with the provisions of the Constitution.

On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the church of St Paul.
1) They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
2) While the opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger, the social basis of parliament eroded. In the end troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.
3) Women were only mute spectators to stand in the visitor's gallery.
4) The dominant middle classes resisted the demands of the workers and artisans, hence lost their support.

Strip cropping is a method of cultivating crops to prevent soil erosion.

In strip cropping different crops are grown on the same field in different strips or patches, usually alternatively.

It is very useful. It helps the soil to retain it's nutrients. This happens because usually the crops grown require different nutrients and thus the soil doesn't gets exhausted with a particular nutrient. In addition such crops can also be grown that adds certain nutrients to the soil.

It is usually done on slopes where there is a chance of washing away of nutrients.

Although there are different names for slash and burn farming in different regions of India, the name 'Jhum Cultivation' or Jhuming is commonly used in this context. The following table shows various names for slash and burn farming in different countries.

Cotton Textiles: Cotton textiles were traditionally produced with hand spinning and handloom weaving techniques. Power-looms came into use after the 18th century. During the colonial period, the competition of mill-made cloth from England destroyed the Indian textiles industry.

At present, there are 1600 cotton and synthetic textile mills in India. Almost 80% of them are in the private sector. The rest are in the public sector and cooperative sector. Additionally, there are several thousand small factories with four to ten looms.

Jute Textiles

India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods in the world. It is the second largest exporter of jute; after Bangladesh. Most of the 70 jute mills in India are located in West Bengal; mainly along the bank of Hooghly. The jute industry is in a narrow belt which is 98 km long and 3 km wide.

The transformation from hand printing to the mechanical printing led to the print revolution.

The impact of Print Revolution
(i) The shift from hand printing to mechanical printing is known as the print revolution.
(ii) It led to the growth and development in technique and production of books.
(iii) It transformed the lives of people by opening the door of knowledge to a vast literate population. It also changed people’s relationship to information and knowledge and with institution and authorities.
(iv) It influenced people’s conception and opened new ways of looking at things.
(v) It encouraged debates and discussions on written texts and encouraged freedom of opinion on important issues. Generated a new reading habit and book culture.

The nationalists made sincere efforts to unify people against the British Government. It was not an easy task to unify them. The following were some of the problems involved in the process:

1. The past history of India was based on facts about Hinduism and Hindu mythologies.

2. The images that were celebrated were drawn from Hindu iconography.

3. This made the people of other communities feel isolated.

4. Moreover, Mahatma Gandhiji’s leadership tried to channel people’s grievances into an organised movement.

5. However, there was participation from people belonging to different groups and classes each having their own aspirations and expectations.

6. Hence, the meaning of freedom from the British rule was interpreted in different ways by different societies of people.

7. The demands of one group did not alienate each other.

8. It was the leaders who constantly worked to unite all classes of people and tried to resolve their grievances.

9. There were episodes of frequent disunity and conflicts between the different groups of people.

Thus, unifying people with different views of freedom was difficult, but our leaders strived hard to free our country from the British clutches.

Large scale participation of women was an important feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement. During the Salt March, thousands of women came out of  their homes to listen to the speeches of Gandhi. women participated in protest marches, manufactured salt, and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops. Many went to jail. While women of high caste families participated from urban areas, in rural areas they came from rich peasant households. 
But this did not bring about any radical changes in the positin of women. For a long time the Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold any position of authority within the organisation.

Britian:

1. Before the eighteenth century, there were different ethnic identities with its own culture and politics-English, Welsh, Scot, and Irish.

2. As the English nation's wealth and power increased, its influence over other island nations also increased.

3. the english parliament which has seized power from the monarchy in 1688 was the instrument through which a nation state, with england came to be forged.

4.. the act of union 1707  between england and scotland had resulted in the formation of united kingdom of great britain

5. ireland was also later forcibly incorporated into UK in 1801

Germany

• NATIONALIST feelings were widespread among middle class Germans who tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a National state governed by an elected Parliament.
• Liberal initiative to nation building was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the militaiy.
• Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its Chief Minister, Mr. Otto Von Bismarck was the architect of this process, which carried out with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
• Three wars over seven years ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
• In January 1871, the Prussian King, William-I, was proclaimed German emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles<button aria-label="like this post" title="like this post"></button><button aria-label="like this post" title="like this post"></button>

Different countries face different kinds of challenges. At least one fourth of the globe is still not under democratic government. The challenge for democracy in these parts of the world is very stark. These countries face the foundational challenge of making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government. This involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from controlling government and establishing a sovereign and functional state. For example, Nepal was under Monarchy till recent times. Now Nepal has changed to a democratic system. Certain mindsets and systems will take years to change as they have taken years to develop. Nepal is a very good example of foundational challenge of democracy.

Unification of Italy

• Italy was politically fragmented into various small states which were ruled by monarchies.
• During the mid-nineteenth century, only the state of Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by the Italian monarchy. The northern states were under the Austrian monarchy, Central Italy was under the control of the Pope and the states in the south were under the control of the Bourbon kings of Spain.
• Giuseppe Mazzini was a revolutionary who actively supported the unification of the Italian states. For achieving this aim, he formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’.
• The state of Sardinia-Piedmont took the responsibility of fulfilling this task after the failed uprisings in 1831 and 1848. The king of Sardinia-Piedmont, Victor Emmanuel II, was actively helped by his Chief Minister Cavour. Cavour led the process of the unification of Italy.

• In 1859, the state of Sardinia-Piedmont defeated the Austrians. In 1860, the Italian forces helped by Giuseppe Garibaldi and his volunteers marched into southern Italy and unified it with Italy.
• King Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as the king of united Italy. The complete unification of Italy was achieved in 1871.

MNC's play an important role in the globalisation process. They compete with the local producers directly even after being miles apart, thus integrating the markets. Their working leads to exchange of investments and products which leads ti interconnection between diverse countries.

1 Interest rate- The borrower has to pay a sum of money as interest along with the prinicipal amout.

2.Collateral- It is an asset that the borrower owns and uses this as aguarentee to the lender until the loan is repaid.

3. Documentation- Proper documents of borrowing with all the terms and conditions must be submitted.

4. Mode of repayment - The mode through which the borrower will repay the loan must be clearly mentioned.