1. Nationalist feeling were widespread among middle class farmers.

2. In 1848, they tried to unify Germany in to a nation.

3. The feeling was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military.

4. From the Prussia took on the leadership of unification of Germany .

5. It's chif minister Otto von Bismarck was the architect of this process.

6. Three wars over seven years ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.

Dawn of the century was written by E.T. Paull in 1900.
The picture on the famous book ‘Dawn of the century’ indicates:
1. There is an angle of progress, bearing the flag of the new century and is gently perched on a wheel with wings symbolizing time.
2. The fight is taking into the future.
3. Floating about behind her are the sign of progress- Railway, Camera, Machines, Printing press and factory.

The aristocracy is a social class that a particular society considers its highest order. In many states, the aristocracy included the upper class of people (aristocrats) with hereditary rank and titles. ... They are usually below only the monarch of a country or nation in its social hierarchy.

The port of Surat declined by the end of the eighteenth century on account of the growing power of European companies in trade with India. The port of Surat was an important pre-colonial port. It connected India to the Gulf and Red Sea ports. A vibrant sea trade was operated through this port. A variety of Indian merchants and bankers were involved in this network of export trade. But by the 1750s this network, controlled by Indian merchants, was breaking down. The Europeans secured many concessions from local courts as well as the monopoly rights to trade. European colonies developed the Bombay port in the later half of the 18th century. This led to a decline of the old ports of Surat and Hoogly from where local merchants had operated. Exports slowed and local banks here went bankrupt. The European companies gradually gained power. This resulted in decrease of the activities on Surat Port. Consequently sea trade from surat declined.

The main aim of the French revolutionaries was to overthrow the monarchical rule and the ‘Ancien regime’ in France and the establishment of a republican government.
Their aims:
1.) They will constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
2.) Essential social changes based on liberalism.
3.) Drafting a formal constitution.
4.) Abolition of monarchy.
5.) Foundation of secular and democratic republic.
The French revolutionaries aimed: That people would constitute the nation and shape its destiny. Establishment of a system based on equal prospects, freedom of speech, accepted sovereignty and a representative government. Abolition of the monarchy.

The grindinding of lime stone for cement industry produce smoke which settles down and retards the process of infiltration of water.

• On 13th April 1919, the infamous Jallianwala Bagh incident took place.
• On that day, a crowd of villagers who had come to Amritsar to attend a fair gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwala Bagh.
• Being from outside the city, they were unaware of the martial law that had been imposed.
• General Dyer entered the area, blocked the only exit point, and opened fire on the crowd, killing and wounding hundreds of people.
• His objective was to ‘produce a moral effect’ to create in the minds of satyagrahis, a feeling of terror and awe.
• As the news spread, crowds took to the streets. There were strikes, clashes with police and attacks on government buildings. The government responded with brutal repression. Seeing violence spread, Mahatma Gandhi called off the movement.

Print popularised the ideas of enlightened thinkers, the writings of Voltaire and Rousseau were read widely. They made a critical commentary on tradition, superstition and despotism. It opened the eyes of the readers, made them question, be critical and rational.

(ii) Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. All values, norms and institutions were revalued and discussed by a public that had become aware of the power of reason. New ideas of social revolution came into being.

(iii) By the 1780s, there was an outpouring of literature, that mocked royalty and criticised their morality. In the process, it raised questions about the existing social order. It led to hostile sentiments against the monarchy. Thus, the print culture created the conditions in which the French Revolution occurred.

Some books that reflect the plight of the lower caste and poor on India are :

1.   Gulamgiri
2.   Chhote aur badde ka sawal

Some books that reflect the plight of the lower caste and poor on India are :

1.   Gulamgiri
2.   Chhote aur badde ka sawal

After the revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the press was changed in British India. Vernacular papers became assertively nationalist. To control the vernacular papers, the ‘Vernacular Press Act’ was passed in 1878 under the Governor-Generalship and Viceroyalty of Lord Lytton.The act empowered the government to impose restrictions on the press in the following ways
(i) Modelled on the Irish Press Laws, this act
provided the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press.
(ii) The purpose of the act was to control the printing and circulation of seditious material, specifically which were against the British Government in India.
(iii) From now on the government kept regular track of the vernacular newspaper.
(iv) When a report published in the newspaper was judged as seditious, the newspaper was warned.
(v) If the newspaper ignored the warning of the government, the government could seize the press and confiscate the printing machinery.

India is rich in good quality iron ores.

• Magnetite: It is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron up to 70 per cent. It has excellent magnetic qualities and is valuable in the electrical industry.
• Haematite: It is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used but has a slightly lower iron content than magnetite, i.e., 50 per cent.

• Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy. It is also used in making bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.
• Copper is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries.
• Aluminium is lightweight yet strong and hence is used in a variety of applications.
• Mica is a mineral which is made up of a series of plates or leaves. The mica sheets can be so thin that a thousand of them can be layered into a few centimetre thick mica sheet.

Power sharing empowers the nation in following ways-
1) It reduces chances of conflict.
2) It promotes national harmony.
3) Power sharing is the very spirit of democracy.
4) If equal power is given to each group they cannot suppress each other.It leads to strengthening of democracy.
Thus ,we conclude that power sharing is an effective way to strengthen the nation.

The three reasons why women attacked spinning jenny in Europe in the 19th century are-

1. Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny because it could spin many spindles with one wheel. This increased productivity and led to decrease in employment of women for spinning.

2.  The fear of unemployment made women workers hostile to the introduction of new technology

3 .This was the reason of aggressive attack from women in England on one of the woolen industry in which spinning jenny was first installed.Angry women therefore, attacked the machine.

(i) Arid soils are the soils of desert or semi-desert regions and colours varies from red to brown.

(ii) The soil has sandy texture and salinity. As precipitation is very low the temperature is high and evaporation is faster making it lack in moisture and humus.

(iii) The calcium content increase downward and forms kankar layers downward and sometimes the kankar layer in the bottom layers restrict the infiltration of water. Sometimes, after irrigation its productivity is increased and it becomes suitable for cultivation.

Advantages of communalism :

1. It works effectively as a centrally-planned economy.
2. It can transform the shape of an economy to the vision of the leader.
3. It creates equality on a level that capitalism can never offer.
4. It allows for employment opportunities to be given out to everyone.

Disadvantages of communalism:-

1. The government decides on what the people can have, rather than what they want
2. Most all businesses are owned and controlled by the government.
3. Everybody is working, and most have nothing

Swaraj can mean generally self-governance or "self-rule", and was used synonymous with "home-rule" by Mahatma Gandhi but the word usually refers to Gandhi's concept for Indian independence from foreign domination. Swaraj lays stress on governance not by a hierarchical government, but self governance through individuals and community building

A wide variety of social groups responded tro the call of Swaraj given by Mahatma Gandhi during the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement. Inevitably, each of their interpetations of the concept of Swaraj differd from one another.

The first jute mill was established at Rishra, on the River Hooghly near Calcutta in 1855 when Mr. George Acland brought jute spinning machinery from Dundee.