When no political party gets full majority, few political parties come together and form the government. This is known as coalition government.
This effects the efficiency of government as different parties have different ideas and opinions on the welfare of the people.

- Manufacturing industries assist in modernising agriculture and it reduce the heavy dependence on agricultural productivity.
- It generates more employment opportunities and removes unemployment and poverty level in our nation.
- It provides balanced regional growth in all areas of an economy. Export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce, and brings in much needed foreign exchange.
- Countries that transform their raw materials into a wide variety of furnished goods of higher value are prosperous.
- Industry sector contributes 27 % of GDP out of it manufacturing accounts for 17 %.
- The other ways of measuring the development of economy is to measure per capita income, total income of the country, the extent of import/export, the gdp (gross domestic produce) and the fiscal deficit.

In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu a French artist prepared a series of four prints visualizing his dream of a world made up of democratic and social Republic. During 19th century nationalism emerged forcing many changes in Political and mental world of Europe.

We should conserve forests and wildlife because they are essential for us in the following reasons:

•   Forests provide us oxygen and responsible for rainfall.
•  Forests prevent soil erosion.
•   Plants are dependent on animals and birds for their pollination and seed dispersal and maintain energy flow in an ecosystem.
•  Forests provide us various medicines.
•  Various forest products are used as raw materials in industries.

• The unification of Italy is the result of dedication, contribution and effort of three great leaders Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi.
• During 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had tried to unite Italy. He formed the secret society called Young Italy.  But both the uprising in 1831 and 1848 failed.
• Even the ruling elites also wanted a unified Italy which would offer economic development and political dominance.
• The unification of Italy was a result of many wars. Chief Minister Cavour made a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
• A large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the unification movement.
• In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicily succeeded to drive out the Spanish rulers with the help of local people.
• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as king of United Italy.

Horizontal  Powers Sharing
(i) Horizontal Division of powers is such a power sharing arrangement in which power is shared , among different organs of government as, legislature, executive and judiciary.
(ii) In horizontal division of powers, different organs of government exercise different powers, i.e., there is a concept of separation of powers.
(iii) Horizontal distribution specifies the concept of checks and balances in order to check the exercises of unlimited powers of the organs.
(iv) Horizontal distribution of power ensures the concept of the expansion of democracy.

Vertical Powers Sharing
(i) In Vertical Division of powers, power can be shared among governments at different levels like union, state and local levels of such government, i.e., it involves higher and lower levels of government.
(ii) Whereas, in vertical division of powers, constitution clearly lays down the powers of different levels of government.
(iii) There is no such concept of checks and balances in the vertical Division because powers are clearly given by the constitution from the higher level to the lower level.
(iv) Vertical division of powers promotes the concept of deepening of democracy.

Technical and economic development have led to more consumption of resources in the following ways:

• It provides equipments which increases production that lead to the consumption of more resources. Introduction of sophisticated machinery further helps in exploitation of resources.
• The economic development leads to the rise of the needs of people which results into more consumption of resources.
• Economic development provides favourable environment for the development of latest technologies which helps to convert various materials into resources.

The political conditions of Europe as follows :
(i) The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe.
(ii) In most countries, there were more job seekers than employment. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
(iii) Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine made goods from England, where industrialisation was more advanced than on the continent.
(iv) In these regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
(v) The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.

• Political Fragmentation: Like Germany, Italy was also politically fragmented. During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia- Piedmont was ruled by an Italian Prince.
• Role ofMazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini made efforts to unite Italian Republic. He had formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ for achieving his goal.
• Role of Count Cavour: He was the chief minister who led the movement to unify Italy. He formed a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and defeated the Austrian forces.
• Role of Giuseppe Garibaldi: Garibaldi also formed armed volunteers. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdoms of Two Sicilies and succeeded in driving out the Spanish rulers.
• In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of United Italy.

Hit and Trial Method

The simplest method to balance a chemical equation is by the hit and trial method also called the trial and error method.

The method involves the following steps:
Step 1: Write the correct formulae of the reactants and the products with plus signs in between with an arrow pointing from the reactants to the products. This is called the skeleton equation.
Step 2: Select the largest formula from the skeleton equation and equalise the number of atoms of each of its constituent elements on both sides of the chemical equation by suitable multiplications.
Or
Balance the atoms of that element which occurs at the minimum number of places on both sides of the chemical equation first. Atoms which occur at a maximum number of places are balanced last of all.
Step 3: When an elementary gas (diatomic) such as hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine or nitrogen appears as a reactant or a product, the equation is balanced more easily by keeping the elementary gas in the atomic state. The balanced atomic equation is then made molecular by multiplying the whole equation by two.
Step 4: Verify that the number of atoms of each element is balanced in the final equation.
Step 5: The chemical equation can be made more informative by mentioning the physical states of the reactants and the products. Thus, the gaseous, liquid, aqueous and solid states of the reactants and products are represented by the notations (g), (l), (aq) and (s), respectively.

The following are five important measures taken to prevent soil erosion and ensure soil conservation:

1. Terrace Farming - On hilly slopes, terraces act as bunds and prevent the soil from being washed away by running water. Terrace farming is practiced with successful results in Japan, South-East Asia and the USA.
2. Shelter Belts - Peasants plant trees in several rows to reduce wind erosion. They are called ‘wind breaks’.
3. Contour Ploughing - Ploughing along contours on a slope prevents soil being washed away by rains or by surface run off. Contours act like bunds. Terraces are leveled into step-like small fields with even slopes. Contour ploughing is common in countries like Japan, China and some of the South-East Asian countries.
4. Strip Cropping - In this system, crops are grown in alternate strips of land in order to check the effect of the winds.
5. Construction of Dams - Rivers are known to cause soil erosion. Dams are built in the upper course of the rivers in order to control the erosion of soil.

Relief, nature of parent rock or bedrock, climate, vegetation and other forms of life, especially decomposers, and time are important factors in the formation of soil. Weathering of the parent rocks due to climatic factors like change of temperature, wind and frost action and rainfall and natural forces like action of running water, wind, glaciers etc., lead to disintegration of rocks.This leads to the formation of soil. The four most important factors of soil formation are thus :
(i) Relief determines the nature of weathering and erosion.
(ii) Climate determines the rate and factor of denudation of the rocks and influences weathering and erosion.
(iii) Nature of the parent rock determines the colour, texture and mineral content of the soil.
(iv) Time determines maturity of the soil, usually it takes millions of years to form soil upto few cms in depth.

In Punjab and Haryana, the net sown area is more than 80% of the total land in the state. On the other hand, it is less than 10% in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. 3.38% of the total land is used for grazing, while the remaining lands are fallow and waste lands. In some of these states, the proportion of net sown is low because they are covered by dense tropical forests. The fertility of the soil is not suitable for cultivation. They receive heavy rainfall which is adverse for the cultivation. Added to this, these areas are backward and the farmers are very poor and hence they lack technology method of farming. Therefore, the net sown area differs from state to state.

The Civil Disobedience Movement was different from the Non-Cooperation Movement. The main differences between these two movements are
(i) The Non-Cooperation Movement was launched in 1921 by Gandhiji, but the Civil Disobedience Movement was launched in 1930.
(ii) The Non-Cooperation Movement started with middle class participation whereas the Civil Disobedience Movement was first supported by the Industrialists like GD Birla, Purshottamdas Thakur.
(iii) Due to Khalifa issues Muslim community participated in Non-Cooperation on large scale. But the growing proximity of the Congress party and Hindu Mahasabha prevented the Muslims to participate in Civil Disobedience Movement.
(iv) The Non-Cooperation Movement was withdrawn by Gandhiji due to violent incident at Chauri Chaura.
But the Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn in 1931, when Gandhi signed ‘Gandhi-Irwin’ pact.
(v) In Non-Cooperation Movement, Women did not participate in large scale. But large scale participation of women is one of the most significant features of the Civil Disobedience Movement.