In a federal form of government, the central government shares its powers with the various constituent units of the country. For example, in India, power is divided between the government at the Centre and the various State governments.

The 18308 were the years of great economic hardship in Europe due to the following reasons : (i) There was enormous increase in population all over Europe. (ii) There were more seekers of jobs than employment. (iii) People migrated from rural areas to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.

The 1830s were the years of great economic hardship in Europe due to the following reasons :
(i) There was enormous increase in population all over Europe.

(ii) There were more seekers of jobs than employment.

(iii) People migrated from rural areas to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.

(iv) There was stiff competition between the products of small producers and products imported from England where goods were made by machines as industrialisation had already taken place there.

(v) Peasants’ condition was bad due to burden of feudal dues and obligations.

(vi) The prices of food had risen due to bad harvest. This had resulted in widespread pauperism in town and country.

Giuseppe Mazzini played an important role in forming a secret society, name Giovine Italia (Young Italy). The party's main goal was to release the Italian states from foreign rule and joining them into a free and independent unitary republic. He wanted to fight for freedom and liberty and wanted to create nation-state. He was born in Genoa 1807. 1) He became a member of Carbonari , a secret society. 2) He attempted a revolution in Liguria and was sent to exile in 1831.

The 18308 were the years of great economic hardship in Europe due to the following reasons : (i) There was enormous increase in population all over Europe. (ii) There were more seekers of jobs than employment. (iii) People migrated from rural areas to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.

The Congress of Vienna was held from September of 1814 to June of 1815. After the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte, this international conference was called to create a balance among the European powers in such a way so as to prevent future wars and maintain peace and stability on the European continent.French returned territories gained by Napoleon from 1795 - 1810. Russia extended its powers and received souveranity over Poland and Finland. However, due to the increase of power of other European powers (Russia and Prussia) the Austrian monarchy rather lost in significance.

A Nation State refers to a country with well defined delineated boundaries, resided by people with a similar culture, shared history and ethnic character. It is also supposed to have a government of its choice. The people in a Nation State are supposed to have unity, strength and cooperation.

1. The unification of Germany was relatively easier than that of Italy. Unlike the Italians, the Germans had a Confederation Parliament and a Custom Union (Zollverein) which brought some form of political and economic unity. For the Italians, there was no form of such unity but were instead directly and indirectly dominated by Austria.

2. The actual unification of Italy took a longer period compared to that of the Germans. The first territorial achievement in the Italian unification was in 1859 and it dragged on until 1870 when the Franco-Prussian war broke out. For the Germans, they were only actively involved in three quick wars between 1864 to 1871.

3. Although Cavour and Bismarck played the greatest roles in the two unifications, Bismarck played a much greater role than Cavour. Cavour was assisted by Mazzini who politicized the Italians about the benefits of a united Italy, Garibaldi who liberated Sicily and Naples and the central states who voted in favour of Piedmont through a referendum. After Cavour's death, Victor Emmanuel II and Garibaldi were the ones who completed the unifications. Much as Von roon; Moltek and William I assisted Bismarck, the degree of assistance was less than that of Cavour. Infact, it was through Bismarck's diplomacy, blood and iron policy that Prussia became successful in ousting Denmark, Austria and France from German territories.

4. There was more foreign assistance in the unification of Italy than that of Germany. The liberation of Italian states was directly or indirectly due to the role of foreign powers. More importantly, the liberation of Venetia and Rome would not have been realized if it was not due to Prussia's role. As far as the Germans were concerned, there was less foreign assistance compared to Italy. The German unification was spearheaded by Bismarck' who manipulated international politics and united Germany on Prussian terms. In other words, he relied more on Prussian's military might in the 3successive wars through which the unification of Germany was achieved.

5. The unification of Italy was achieved at the expense of Nice and Savoy that were given to France as a compensation for her assistance in the liberation of Lombardy (in 1859). However, no single state was battered in the German unification. Although Bismarck had promised Napoleon III at the Biarritz Agreement of 1865 some territories along the Rhine, he violated the agreement and refused to cede any German state to France after the war. He instead propagandized and annexed those states to complete the unification of Germany in 1871.

6. The unification of Germany was on Prussian terms and Berlin the capital city of Prussia became the city of a united Germany. But in the unification of Italy, Piedmont with her capital Turin were not considered to be the capital city of a united Italy in 1870. Instead the city of a united Italy was shifted from Turin where it had been declared in 1861 to Rome in 1871.

7. The consequences of the two unifications also differed. The final unification of Italy was relatively peaceful without much bloodshed in 1870. In other words, the liberation ofRome was relatively peaceful because of the favourable circumstances provided by the Franco-Prussian war. Contradictorily, the unification of Germany was achieved by humiliating France in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871.

This destroyed the balance of power that hitherto favoured Britain and France. This created a hostile relationship between France and Germany that led to arms race and alliance system which disorganized Europe and led to the outbreak of the First World War.

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(1) The German unification was not supported by armed volunteers. In Italian unification, Garibaldi had won the support of local peasants to drive out the Spanish rulers.
(2) No secret societies were formed so as to achieve the goal of unification of Germany. But in Italy, Mazzini formed Young Italy.
(3) Italian unification was completed 10 years before Germany was united.
(4) Germany, in its unification had to fight against France and Austria, while in Italian unification Cavour had a tactful diplomatic alliance with France to defeat Austria.
(5) Bismarck followed the policy of‘Blood and Iron’ for German unification, while Cavour used his excellent diplomatic skills in Italian unification.

Further, the Balkan area became a place of big power rivalry. The European powers were jealous of each other's trade , colonies, naval and military. The ambition to conquest led to wars in the region and finally the First World War. The Balkan states were very jealous of each other.

(i) The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive. (ii) The Balkan area became an area of intense conflict as different Slavic nationalities struggled for their independence.

The Balkan was a region with diversity, ethnicity and geographical variation, which comprises of following countries – modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia- Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia,and Montenegro. Its inhabitants were known as Slavs. The Balkan issue become one of the major factors responsible for the First World War. Some of the examples were –

• Many parts of the Balkan were under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The idea of romantic nationalism and the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire intensified the situation, even though Ottoman empire tried to strengthen its position by introducing reforms but didn’t succeed, so the Balkan people demanded independence and political rights. They also proved that they were always free but later subjugated by foreign powers.

• In Balkan, Slavic Nationalities were in search of their identity and independence made the situation worse. The Balkan states wanted to capture more territories no matter how; this made Balkans a big power rivalry.

• During this time, the European powers conflicted on trade, colonies, naval and military. Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary wanted to establish their power in Balkan.

All these were the examples that made Balkan issues as the major factor responsible for the First World War.

Giuseppe Mazzini was an ‘Italian revolutionary’ who founded two ‘underground societies’. He formed ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles and thereafter he formed ‘Young Europe’ in Berne. Giuseppe Mazzini played an ‘important role’ in supporting the ideas for the unification of Italy.  

He wanted to involve the youth in revolutionary activities so he founded the underground secret societies Youth Italy and Young Europe. He played an ‘important role’ in liberal nationalism. 

Frederic Sorrieu was a French artist who in 1848 prepared a series of four prints visualizing his dream of a world made up of ‘Democratic and Social Republics’. The distinct feature of these prints were the representations of men, nations and allegories. In the first of his print, we can see men and women marching across the statue of Liberty to offer homage. The statue holds a torch of enlightenment and the Charter of the Rights of Man. And finally, the remains of the absolutist institutions can be seen broken and shattered on the Earth indicating the end of conservatism and absolutism.

Think you have Diesel (natural resource or nature).
Then you have a car that runs on Diesel and the technology of Diesel refineries (technology).
And then you have car factories and diesel refineries (institutions).
So, if Diesel isn't present the other two wont be there.
And if technology is not there, then there will not be Diesel refineries and there will be no way we can use Diesel properly.
And if institution is , what's the use of technology as we cant produce the technology without the institutions like factories.
Therefore, all these are inter related / depended upon each other ( If one will not be their, the other can't Exist.

The division of power between the Central and State Governments is done in a three fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the State Governments.
There are three lists - Union List, State List and Concurrent List.
(i) Union List: It includes subjects of national importance, e.g., defence of the country, foreign affairs, banking, communication and currency. The Central Government alone can make decisions on these matters.
The aim of including these matters in Union List is to ensure uniformity in the policy of these areas throughout the country.
(ii) State List: It consists subjects of state and local importance such as police, trade, commerce, agriculture and irrigation. The State Governments alone can make laws and decisions on these areas.
(iii) Concurrent List: It includes those subjects which are of common interest to both the Central as well as State Governments. It includes matters like education, forests, marriage and trade unions. Both the State and Central Governments can make decision on these matters.

 The impact of globalisation on Indian agriculture has been felt since colonial times. Raw cotton and spices were important export items from India. In 1917, Indian farmers revolted in Champaran against being forced to grow indigo in place of foodgrains, in order to supply dye to Britain’s flourishing textile industry. Thus, globalisation has had its boons and banes for Indian agriculture.
Post liberalisation, Indian farmers face new challenges in the form of competition from highly subsidised agriculture of developed nations. This prompts the need for making Indian agriculture successful and profitable by improving the conditions of small and marginal farmers, countering the negative effects of Green Revolution, developing and promoting organic farming, and diversifying cropping pattern from cereals to high-value crops.

Following are the three important reasons, why the decade of 1830s is known as ‘great economic hardship’ in Europe:

1. During the 1830s, there was large-scale unemployment in Europe. In most of the European countries, employment opportunities were low in number, whereas job seekers were many.
2. Cities had come to be extremely overcrowded. As a result, slums had started coming up as more people migrated from the rural areas to the urban areas.
3. Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from the imports of cheap machine-made goods from England where industrialisation was more advanced, especially in textile production.

• It was launched against the arrival of the Simon Commission, This continued between 1930 and 1934.

•  Complete Independence was the main aim of Civil disobedience movement which formulated this demand in the Lahore session.

•   It was fully fledged mass movement.

 •   Mahatma Gandhi started the famous salt march.

•  On 6th April he ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling sea water.

•  This marked the beginning of the Civil disobedience movement.

The name "Two Sicilies" originated from the partition of the medieval Kingdom of Sicily. ... As a result of the War of the Sicilian Vespers (1282–1302), the King of Sicily lost the Island of Sicily (also called Trinacria) to the Crown of Aragon, but remained ruler over the peninsular part of the realm. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the state that united the southern part of the Italian peninsula with the island of Sicily between the mid-15th and the mid-19th centuries. 

Primitive Subsistence 
1. It is practised on small patches of land. 
2. Primitive tools like hoe, dao and digging sticks, and family community labour are used. 
3. In this type of farming, farmers depend on the monsoons and natural fertility of the soil. 
4. Land productivity in this type of agriculture is low. 
Intensive Subsistence 
I. It is practised on bigger land holdings. 
2. Modern inputs like HYV seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides, etc., to obtain higher productivity are used. 
3. In intensive subsistence, irrigation facilities like tubewells and canal irrigation is used. 
4. Land productivity is high as it is meant for commercial purposes. 

In a democracy, only those people should have the power to make decisions that are elected by the people. There are many situations in which elections are happening but the power remains with someone else. For ex- In Pakistan, General Pervez Musharraf led a military coup in October 1999. He overthrew a democratically elected government and declared himself the ‘Chief Executive’ of the country.

One of the essential features of a Democratic form of government is that the people elect their representatives who have shall have the final decision-making powers. This ensures participation of the people in the governance of the country. We can give examples of India, US, England as successful democracies where the Parliament which is an elected body of the people and is the symbol of democracy makes policies for the people.

Feudalism was the medieval model of government predating the birth of the modern nation-state. Feudal society is a military hierarchy in which a ruler or lord offers mounted fighters a fief (medieval beneficium), a unit of land to control in exchange for a military service.

The 1848 revolution of the liberals:

(i) The 1848 revolution was led by the educated middle class along with the poor, unemployed starving peasants and workers in many European countries for fulfilling their demands of constitutionalism with national unification. 

(ii) Political ideas: In German regions, large number of political associations whose members were middleclass professionals, businessman and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for all German National Assembly. 

(iii) Social ideas: A large number of women had participated actively and formed their own political associations founded newspaper, took part in political meetings and struggled for right to vote. 

(iv) Economic ideas: Liberals struggled for abolition of serfdom and bonded labour and wanted freedom of market. 

(v) Though conservative forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848, they could not restore the old order. Thus, serfdom and bonded labour were abolished.

In the year 1848, a French artist named Frederic Sorrieu prepared a series of four prints visualizing his dream of a world made up of ‘democratic and social Republics’.

These are resources which have been surveyed and their quality and quantity have been determined for utilisation. The development of resources depends on technology and level of their feasibility. For example, India has a cumulative total of 2,47,847 million tones of coal resources.