The artists of the time of the French Revolution personified liberty with a female figure like Marianne.

The artists of the time of the French Revolution personified liberty with a female figure like Marianne. Before the French Revolution, French Monarch was embodied in masculine figures. So the Marianne, a female figure was used by artists to personify liberty and reason. Marianne is the national symbol of France which symbolizes victory of the Republic.

Acts of Union between england and scotland resulted in the formation of the united kingdom .

The Acts of Union, passed by the English and Scottish Parliaments in 1707, led to the creation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain on 1 May, 1907 The UK Parliament met for the first time in October 1707.

Answer :- (b) Violation of Salt Tax by Gandhi

After famous Dandi March of Mahatma Gandhi, thousand in different parts of country broke the salt law. This marked the beginning of Civil Disobedience Movement. People not only refused to cooperate but also broke colonial laws.
The peasants join the movement because they wanted to get rid of the British rule so they would get rid of paying taxes. They also believed on Gandhiji that the movement would work.

 The Civil Disobedience Movement led by M.K. Gandhi, in the year 1930 was an important milestone in the history of Indian Nationalism.
1. Economic depression on Indian economy : 
a. Agricultural prices began to fall and collapsed in 1930. 
b. Demand for agricultural goods declined. 
c. It became difficult for the peasants to sell their harvest and pay revenue. 
d. The entire country was in crisis.
e. It helped in reshaping the national movement. 
2. Failure of the Simon commission : 
a. The British appointed Simon Commission in 1927 . It was to examine the functioning of the constitutional system in India.
b. The main pupose was to determine India's fitness for self governemnt. Activate Windows Settings to activate Wi 
c. Since the Commission did not have a single Indian member it was seen as an insult to the self respect of Indians. 
d. Leaders boycotted the commission and greeted it with Black flags and slogans Simon go back'. 
e. British retaliated in a brutal manner, with lathi charge in which Lala Lajpat Rai was fatally wounded 
3. Oppressive salt laws : 
a. To wage a struggle against the oppressive British policies and laws, Mahatma Gandhi sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin stating eleven demands on 31st January 1930. These demands represented the general interests and which all the classes identified with. 
b. The most important demand was to abolish salt tax. 
c. Since salt was consumed by rich and poor alike and was one of the most essential food items. The salt tax levied by the government revealed the most oppressive side of the colonial. rule. 
d. Salt was seen by Mahatma Gandhi as a powerful symbol that could unite masses. 
e. The eleven demands served as an ultimatum to the government failing to fulfill which he would resort to his agenda of swaraj. , These demands represented the general interests and which all the classes identified with.The most important demand was to abolish salt tax. 
f. The colonial government failed to concede to the demands, 
g. Hereby, Gandhi chose to break the salt law peacefully and show resistance to the British rule. This instigated the Civil disobedience movement and the salt march to Dandi. 

Ans : Tryst With Destiny

Jawaharlal Nehru came forward with the “Tryst with Destiny” speech, to the Indian Constituent Assembly in The Parliament. Furthermore, this speech took place on the eve of India’s Independence, at the hour of midnight on 14 August 1947. Moreover, Jawaharlal Nehru was certainly the first Prime Minister of independent India.

This great speech focuses on the aspects that transcend the history of India. Furthermore, Tryst With Destiny happens to be one of the greatest speeches of the 20th century. Moreover, this speech shows the essence of Indian triumph over British colonial rule. Whenever you listen to this speech, it fills you up with nationalistic pride and passion.

The last part proposes some lines of further investigation. One of the shared convictions of observers of participatory democracy is the anomaly of Brazilian representative democracy before the 1980s. This was reduced to the categories used to describe it, such as patrimonialism or clientelism.

Rowlatt Act of 1919 is known as the black act or law as it severely curtailed civil liberties.  The law made it possible for the British government to jail anyone suspected of plotting or overthrowing the government in jail even without a trial and to try them without any jury.  The act also allowed the British government to arrest Indian political leaders without any trial or warrant.  The Rowlatt Act of 1919 was enforced on the Imperial legislative council despite opposition by Indian leaders.

(i) Even before the factories began to be set up, there was large scale industrial production for international market. This period was referred as the period of proto-industralisation.
(ii) During this period merchants from towns in Europe began moving to the country side, supplying money to peasants and artisans, persuading them to produce for an international market.
(iii) With the expansion of world trade and the acquisition of colonies in different parts of the world, the demand for goods began growing. But the merchants coultl not expand production within towns.
(iv) The urban crafts and trade guilds became powerful and exercised monopoly right to produce and trade in specific products.
(v) It was difficult for new merchants to set up business in towns. The proto-industrial system was part of a network of commercial exchange.

This was because the urban trade groups and guilds were very powerful.This was a group of producers who regulated prices,labour,trained craftspeople and also regulated competition.They  prevented coming of new people into trade.Also the rulers gave some trade groups monopoly rights to trade in specific products.Thus it was difficult for merchants to set up business in towns so they turned to villages.

In 1815, the representatives of the European powers - Britain, Russia,Prussia and Austria wanted to establish long-lasting peace and stability after they defeated Napolean.

Thus, they drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the intenstion of undoing most of the changes brought about during the Napoleonic wars and creating a new conservative order in Europe.

• The Bourbon dynasty was brought back to power and France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.  
• To prevent the French evasion, a series of states werre set up on the boundaries of France.
• This lead to the setting up of kingdom of the Netherlands (inclusive of Belgium) in the north and the kingdom of Genoa (added to Piedmont) in the south.
• Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy.
• However, Napolean's German confederation of 39 states was left untouched.
• In the east, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony. 

Belgium, a country in Western Europe, is known for medieval towns, Renaissance architecture and as headquarters of the European Union and NATO. The country has distinctive regions including Dutch-speaking Flanders to the north, French-speaking Wallonia to the south and a German-speaking community to the east. The bilingual capital, Brussels, has ornate guildhalls at Grand-Place and elegant art-nouveau buildings. Belgium has an area of 30,689 square kilometers, with 16,901 km2 (6,526 sq mi) for Wallonia, 13,625 km2 (5,261 sq mi) for the Flemish Region and 162.4 km2 (62.7 sq mi) for the Brussels Capital Region. By provinces, the area is distributed as such: Luxembourg: 4,459 km2 (1,722 sq mi)

When power is taken away from the Central and State governments, and given to the Local governments, it is called decentralisation.

(i) The basic idea behind decentralisation is that there are a large number of problems and issues which are best settled at the local level. People have a better knowledge of problems in their localities. They also have better ideas on where to spend money, and how to manage things more efficiently.
(ii) At the local level, it is possible for the people to directly participate in decision, making. This helps to inculcate a habit of democratic participation. Basically the local government is the best way to realise one important principle of democracy, namely the Local Self-Government.

When power is taken away from the Central and State governments, and given to the Local governments, it is called decentralisation.

Moral reasons:-

• they are based purely on moral considerations.
• It considered as the basic spirit of democracy.
• Decentralization of power in India is an example of moral reason.

The ways by which more employment can be created in a country like India are: 

(i) If more dams are built and canal water is provided to all the small farmers, a lot of employment can be generated in agriculture sector. 

(ii) Providing cheap credit facilities and crop insurance can result in more employment.

(iii) More money should be spent in transport and storage, because then more people can be employed. 

(iv) The government/banks can provide loan at cheap rates to improve irrigational facilities. 

(v) Technical training, vocational guidance to unemployed youth for self employment

Primary Sector : Activities undertaken by using natural resources, e.g., forestry, agriculture, fishing, etc. 

Secondary Sector : Activities includes various manufacturing activities and adds utility to primary sector, e.g., Cotton-cloths, iron ore-Steel, etc. 

Tertiary Sector : Includes all such activities which supports primary and secondary sector by providing services, e.g., transportation, etc.

Primary sector:
When we produce goods by exploiting natural resources, it is an activity of the primary sector.

Secondary sector:
Covers activities in which natural products are changed into other forms through ways of manufacturing, it is also called as industrial sector.

Tertiary sector:
These are the activities that help in the development of the primary & secondary sector. These activities by themselves do not produce good but they are an aid and support to the production process. Example: Transportation-Goods that are produced in the primary sector need to be transported by trucks or trains and than sold in the wholesale and retail shops; Storage—at times it is necessary to store these products in godowns, which is also a service made available. Communication -talking to others on telephone); Banking-borrowing money from the banks. Since these activities are generate services rather than goods it is also called Service sector.

(i) Area-wise Belgium is a small country in Europe.It is smaller in area than that of Haryana in India. It has a borders with Netherlands, France and Germany.
(ii) Regarding population it has a population of over one crore, about half the population of Haryana.
(iii) Besides, it has a very complex ethnic composition comprising various language speaking communites than India which is a secular and integrated country.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP):

(i)The value of final goods and services produced in each sector during a particular year provides the total production of the sector for that year. And the sum of production in the three sectors gives what is called the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of a country.

(ii)It is the value of all final goods and services produced within a country during a particular year.

(iii)GDP shows how big the economy is.

Different social groups joined the Civil Disobedience Movement. Three of them are listed below.

➡ Rich peasant communities like Patidars of Gujarat and Jats of Uttar Pradesh - joined the movement because, being producers of commercial crops, they were hard-hit by depression and falling prices. For them, Swaraj meant struggle against high revenues.

➡ Poor peasants joined the struggle because they found it difficult to pay the rent. They wanted the unpaid rent to be remitted.

➡Rich business classes were against colonial policies which restricted trade. They joined the movement because they wanted protection against import of foreign goods. They thought that Swaraj would cancel colonial restrictions and trade would flourish without constraints.

The main aim of the revolutionaries of Europe during the years following 1815 was a commitment to oppose monarchical forms of governance that had been established and to fight for liberty and freedom.

For middle classes in cities, the call of Swaraj led to boycott of government institution. In town the movement was relatively peaceful. everyone students, headmasters and lawyers left their jobs. The council elections were boycotted in most provinces. foreign products and clothes were boycotted and burnt, so the movement slowed down gradually due to lack of alternatives.


For the peasants and tribals, Swaraj meant not only freedom from British rule, but also at the hands of landlords. So they organized themselves and demanded reduction of revenue and abolition of beggar. in the countryside there were the houses being attacked. So the tribals started guerilla resistance movements they had been deprived of access to forest and its resources. 
 

Swaraj was the term which meant different things to different people. ... (ii) Peasants - Reduction of land revenue was swaraj for small peasants. (iii) Tribals- Getting their traditional rights over forests were swaraj for the tribals living near forests. The council elections were boycotted in most provinces. foreign products and clothes were boycotted and burnt, so the movement slowed down gradually due to lack of alternatives. For the peasants and tribals, Swaraj meant not only freedom from British rule, but also at the hands of landlords.

Five problems faced by road transport in India are given below :

(a) Volume of traffic and passengers is very large.
(b) Road network is inadequate.

(c) Half the roads are unmetalled, which limits their usage in rainy seasons.

(d) National highways too are inadequate.

(e) Roadways are highly congested in cities and most bridges and culverts are old and narrow

The female figures as an allegory of the nation:

• Artists found a way out to represent a country in the form of a person.
• Then nations were portrayed as female figures.
• The female figure was chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real life.
• It gave the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form.
• Thus, the female figure became an allegory of the nation.
• During the French Revolution artists used the formal allegory to portray idea such as Liberty, Justice and the Republic.