The Liberal Revolution of 1848 refers to the various social revolutions led by educated middle classes amid the revolts of poor, unemployed and hungry workers and peasants in Europe
In Europe the liberal middle class had made the prime appeal for the creation of nation-states based on democratic/parliamentary values. They wanted constitutionalism politically, with democratic administration and national unity 
Socially, they decided to strip society of its birthrights and class related partiality. They needed to eradicate serfdom and slave labor.
Economically they sought business equality and property rights. The elimination of state-imposed limits on goods and capital movements.

1. International: struggle for hegemony and Empire outstrips the fiscal resources of the state
2. Political conflict: conflict between the Monarchy and the nobility over the “reform” of the tax system led to paralysis and bankruptcy.
3. The Enlightenment: impulse for reform intensifies political conflicts; reinforces traditional aristocratic constitutionalism, one variant of which was laid out in Montequieu’s Spirit of the Laws; introduces new notions of good government, the most radical being popular sovereignty, as in Rousseau’s Social Contract [1762]; the attack on the regime and privileged class by the Literary Underground of “Grub Street;” the broadening influence of public opinion.

Stalin’s collectivisation programme:
(i)Stalin forced all peasants to cultivate in collective farms, kolkhoz. The bulk of land and implements were transferred to the ownership of collective farms. Peasants worked on the land, and the kolkhoz profit was shared. 
(ii)Enraged peasants resisted the authorities and destroyed their livestock. Between 1929 and 1931, the number of cattle fell by one-third.
(iii)Those who resisted collectivisation were severely punished. Many were deported and exiled.
(iv)As they resisted collectivisation, peasants argued that they were not rich and they were not against socialism. They merely did not want to work in collective farms for a variety of reasons.
(v)Stalin’s government allowed some independent cultivation, but treated such cultivators unsympathetically.

Tertiary / Service sector

Tertiary Sector: These are activities that help in the development of the primary and secondary sectors. These activities, by themselves, do not produce a good but they are an aid or a support for the production process. 

Example : tourism, banking, transport, storage, communication, etc

Potential

• Resources which are surveyed for their quality and quantity and have determined to be useful in future are called potential resources.
• Examples: mineral which exists in sedimentary rocks can be used in future.

12 nautical miles

The territorial jurisdiction extends to territorial water up to 12 nautical miles from the nearest point of the baseline; beyond territorial waters is the Contiguous Zone extending up to 24 nautical miles; and beyond that up to 200 nautical miles is the Exclusive Economic Zone of India.

1)The depressed class who are popularly known as dalits.
2)The muslims as they were dissapointed after the decline of NCM.
Congress was also a reason behind thier non participation. As they ignored the dalits but Gandhi called them the children of god. He supported them too.
Congress's association with Hindumahasabha was clearly visible to Muslims. So they started feeling alienated and dissapointed.

Resources are vital for human survival and it was believed that resources are free gift of nature. The indiscriminate use of resources led to the following problems:

(i) To satisfy the greed of few individuals, depletion of resources has continued.

(ii) Due to the accumulation of resources in few hands, the society gets divided into two segments, i.e'., rich and poor.

(iii) Indiscriminate use of resources has led to ecological crises, e.g., ozone layer depletion, land degradation, global warming and environmental pollution.

There are basically 6 factors affecting India's climate. 
1) LATITUDE - INDIA IS DIVIDED BY THE TROPIC OF CANCER IN TO THE TROPICAL NORTH AND SUBTROPICAL SOUTH.Due to the curvature of the Earth, the amount of solar energy received is different according to the latitudes. 

2) ALTITUDE - As we go higher, temperature generally decreases (From equator to poles) as the atmosphere becomes less dense.

3) PRESSURE AND WIND SYSTEM - They depend on the latitude and altitude of a place, thus influencing the rainfall patterns. 

4) DISTANCE FROM SEA - The sea has a moderating effect on the climate. As distance from sea increases, this effect decreases and places experience extreme weather conditions (continentality). 

5) OCEAN CURRENTS - They affect the climate of the coastal areas with the onshore winds. 

6) INFLUENCE OF THE HIMALAYAS-THE HIMALAYAS ACT AS A CLIMATIC DIVIDE BY PREVENTING THE BITTER COLD WINDS OF SIBERIA FROM ENTERING INDIA SUBCONTINENT.

The Rowlatt Act was passed in March 1919. This act authorised the Government to imprison any person without trial & convict him in a court.

The Rowlatt Act implied:

(i) Arrest of a person without warrant.

(ii) In camera trial (trial in seclusion)

(iii) Restrictions on movements of individuals.

(iv) Suspension of the Right of Habeas Corpus.

The Act came like a sudden blow to the Indians who were expecting self-governance. Gandhiji appealed to the Viceroy to withhold his consent to such measures. However his appeal was ignored. He started 'Satyagraha' as a challenge to the government.

The act replaced English as the official language of Ceylon with Sinhalese. The act failed to give official recognition to Tamil, which had not received official recognition before. Sinhalese is the language of Sri lanka's majority people, who accounted for around 70% of the country's population at that time. 

• The major social groups of Sri Lanka are: the Sinhala speakers (74 per cent) and the Tamil
  speakers (18 per cent).
• Among Tamils there are two sub-groups: Tamil natives of the country are called ‘Sri Lankan Tamils’ and the rest, whose forefathers came from India as plantation workers during colonial period are called ‘Indian Tamils’.
• Sri Lankan Tamils are concentrated in the north and east of the country.
• Most of the Sinhala-speaking people are Buddhists, while most of the Tamils are Hindus or Muslims. There are about 7 per cent Christians who are both Tamils and Sinhalas.

A social division based on shared culture. People belonging to the same ethnic group, believe in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or of culture or both. They need not always have the same religion or nationality.

(i) Centre-State relations: As and when the ruling party at the State level was different, the parties that ruled at the Centre tried to undermine the power of the states. The Central Government has been misusing the Constitution to dismiss the State governments that were controlled by rival parties. This undermined the spirit of federalism. All this changed significantly after 1990. This period saw the rise of regional political parties in many states of the country.
(ii) Coalition Governments and autonomy of states: The era of coalition has changed the relationship between the centre and state governments since no single party got a clear majority in the LokSabha, the major national parties had to enter into an alliance with many parties including several regional parties to form a government at the Centre. This led to a new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of State Governments.
(iii) Judgement of the Supreme Court: The Supreme Court of India has established strict guidelines for imposing President’s rule. With new guidelines it is very difficult for the Central Government to dismiss state governments in an arbitrary manner. Thus, federal power sharing is more effective today than it was in the early years after the Constitution came into force.

It succeeded when, on February 4, 1948, Ceylon was granted independence as the Dominion of Ceylon. Dominion status within the British Commonwealth was retained for the next 24 years until May 22, 1972 when it became a republic and was renamed the Republic of Sri Lanka.

Denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is known as soil erosion.
Causes of soil erosion:

1. Due to human activities like deforestation, overgrazing, construction and mining, etc.
2. Natural forces like wind, glacier and water leads to soil erosion.
3. The running water cuts through clayey soils and makes deep channels as ‘gullies’. The land becomes unfit for cultivation, this process is called gully erosion and the land is called bad land or ravines in the Chambal basin.
4. Sometimes, water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope. It leads to the washing away of the top soil. This process is called sheet erosion.
5. Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land, and is called wind erosion.
6. Soil erosion is also caused due to defective methods of farming.

Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.

• The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821.

• Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.

• Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire.

• The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824.

• Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

Allegory is a symbol of a nation and it expresses liberty , freedom , justice , greed through a person and thing.
They might also act as political satire.
It is representation of abstract ideas and principles by characters. Allegory plays an important role in the nation's building.

Examples

1) Marianne, allegory of france , a popular christened name. It represents ideas of the liberty, freedom . Which underlined the ideas of a people' s nation. Jer characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty , Republic- the red cap, the tri- colour and the cockade. To popularise the national symbols, statue of the Marianne were erected in public square.
2) Germania, allegory of german nation. She wore crown of oak leaves, as the german oak stands for heroism.It symbolizes strength; courage and freedom.

These allegories were erected in public square and figures were put on coins and stamps for the people to identify with her and nation.

No, The 'Consumer Rights' chapter will not come in CBSE board exam class 10 (2020)

Explanation:

Consumer Rights chapter will not come in CBSE board exam class 10 2020 because the 'Consumer Rights' chapter is meant for Project Work.