• Black soils are made up of extremely fine ; clayey material.
• They are well-known for their capacity to hold moisture.
• They are rich in soil nutrients such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
• They develop deep cracks during hot weather, which helps in the proper aeration of the soil.

•  The Khilafat Movement was started to save the Ottoman Empire and it extended to India against the British power. During the 1st world war, Turkey helped Germany to war against British.The Khilafat Movement expanded to South Asia under the leadership of ali brothers.
•  The Khilafat Movement in India got the support of Mahatma Gandhim.Gandhiji advised the Muslim leaders to start non-cooperation with the British to force them to re-establish Khilafat..

• Now, it is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to the local government bodies.
• Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and the executive heads of these institutions for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and the Backward Classes.
• At least one third of all positions are reserved for women.
• An independent institution called the State Election Commission has been created in each state to conduct free and fair elections for the panchayat and the municipalities.
• The State government are required to share some powers and revenue with the Local government bodies. The nature of sharing varies from state to state.

• PARALLEL to the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants and workers in many European countries in the year 1848, a revolution led by the educated middle class was underway.
• In other parts of Europe, where independent nation-states did not yet exist, men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
• They took advantage of growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles.
• In the German regions, a large number of political associations came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all German National Assembly.
• On 18th May, 1848 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their place in the Frankfurt Parliament.
• They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.

The role of Giuseppe Mazzini as an Italian revolutionary: 

(i) He founded two secret societies—Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne. 

(ii) Members of these societies were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and German states.

(iii) Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. 

(iv) Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republic frightened the conservatives.

India a federal country because of the following reasons:

• There are levels of governments—Central Government, State Government and Local Government.
• Each level of government administers over the same region, but they have their own jurisdiction in matters of administration, taxation and legislation.
• The Government at each level derives its power from the Constitution of the country. Thus, the Central Government cannot easily dilute the powers of the State or Local Governments.
• The basic principles of the Constitution and the rights given to the people cannot be changed by only one tier of the Government. It requires the consent of governments at both levels.
• Both levels of the Government can collect taxes from the people according to the guidelines of the Constitution of the country.
• The Indian Constitution contains three lists which contain subjects in which the Union and the State Governments may form laws. Only central government can make laws in the Union List and state government in the state list. Subjects related to the interests of both Central and State Governments are included in the concurrent list.

Resource planning is a major concern in India because here resources are not distributed equally.
For example, many states have plenty of natural resources such as Arunachal Pradesh and Jharkhand, and they have mineral as well as water in their state, but they do not have other resources.
The Indian government structured the five years plans as resource planning, and they have also taken an initiative to promote their plans in the international level.

The Napoleonic Code made the authority of men over their families stronger, deprived women of any individual rights, and reduced the rights of illegitimate children. All male citizens were also granted equal rights under the law and the right to religious dissent, but colonial slavery was reintroduced.

The main features of civil disobedience  are :-
1.The civil disobedience was launched in 1930 under the guidelines of Gandhiji.
2.Actually  civil disobedience movement was launched to fill the work that non cooperation wont did.
3.Peoples fought against  government for getting their liberty..
4.boycott of school,colleges,foreign cloth, offices. Liquor shops closed.
5.peoples stop paying taxes.

The salient features of the Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 with respect to the Local Government are:

1. Provides a three-tier Panchayati Raj for all the states having a population of more than 20 lakh.

2. Appoints the State Finance Commission to make recommendations on financial powers of the Panchayats.

3. Provides reservation of seats (not less than one-third) for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and women.

4. Holds Panchayatelections regularly for five years.

5. Constitutes the District Planning Commission to prepare draft development plans for the district as a whole. 

Horticulture may be broadly defined as the science and art of growing fruits, vegetable and flowers and crops like spices, condiments and other plantation crops.

•  A belief in the essential rationally and goodness of man.
•  A belief in certain inalienable rights of the individual, particularly, the rights of life. liberty and property.
•  That state comes into existence by mutual consent for the purpose of protection of rights.

The First World War created a new economic and political situation.
• It led to a huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes
• customs duties were raised and income tax introduced.
• Through the war years prices increased - doubling between 1913 and 1918 - leading to extreme hardship for the common people.
• Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.
• Then in 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food.
• This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic.
• According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic.
• People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was over. But that did not happen.

The War created a new economic and political situation :
(i) It led to a huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes, customs duties were raised, and income tax introduced.
(ii) Through the war years, prices increased – doubling between 1913 and 1918 – leading to extreme hardships for the common people.
(iii) Villagers were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.

(iv) The First World war gave a boost to the Indian industries. Since textile industries in Britain began to supply goods related to the War like uniforms, shoes and racksags, the Indian industries took advantage of the void and bagan to manufacture the cloth.  

NAPOLEON had brought revolutionary changes in the administrative field :

1. The Napoleon Civil Code of 1804 did away with all privileges based on birth and established equality before the law.
2. Secured the right of property.
3. Abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
4. Napoleon simplified administrative divisions;
5. In the towns, guild restrictions were removed.

The civil code of 1804 also known as the Napoleonic Code was enacted on March 21, 1804. It was one of the most important code of those times because institutionalised equalilty under law i.e. it ruled out privileges to people that were based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and stated that only the most qualified would be entitled to government jobs. 

The Constitution (72nd Amendment) Act, 1992

1. To make temporary provision for the determination of the number of seats reserved for the Scheduled Tribes in the State assembly of Tripura, until the re-adjustment of seats is made on the basis of the first census after the year 2000 under article 170 of the Constitution.

Sri Lanka continues to be for all practical purposes, a unitary system where the national government has all the powers. Tamil leaders want Sri Lanka to become a federal system.

The three major cropping seasons in India are Rabi, Kharif, and Zaid.

The Rabi season extends from the month October to March. The crops grown in Rabi season are also known as winter season crops, they need a cold weather and less water. For example pulses. oats, wheat, barley etc.
The Kharif season stretches from the month July to October. The crops grown in Kharif season are also known as monsoon crops and need a lot of water. For example Cotton, Rubber, Sugar, Tea, coffee etc.
The crops grown between the months March and June are known as Zaid. The crops grown in Zaid season need a warm and dry weather to grow and also a longer flowering of a day.  For example, the seasonal fruits and vegetables

(I) Economic independency : If a women is working she will get economic independency.
(ii) Equality : As per the law working women need to be treated equally.
(iii) Respected : A working women will get respect not only in the family but in the society also.

1. Economic in dependency: if a women is working she will get economic independency.
2. Equality: As per the law,working women need to be treated equally.
3. Respected: A working women will get respect not only in the family but also in society.

 (i) More workers than the demand : There was an abundance of workers in the market than the demand This had an adverse impact on the lives of the workers. Due to the shortage of work, most of the workers failed to get jobs So they offered their services at lower wages.
(ii) Seasonality of work : Seasonality of work any industries meant prolonged periods without work. After the busy season was over, the poor were on the streets again. Some returned to the countryside after the winter, when the demand for labour in the rural areas opened up in places. But most looked for odd jobs, which till the mid-nineteenth century were difficult to find.
(iii) Low real wages : Though the wages increased somewhat in the early 19th century, but the increase was nullified by increase in prices. During the Napoleonic ware, the red wages fell significantly.
(iv) Poverty and unemployment : At the best of times, till the mid-nineteenth century, about 10 per cent of the urban population was extremely poor The unemployment rate was also very high.
(v) Housing problem : Factory or workshop owners did not house live migrant workers. Many job seekers had to wait weeks, spending nights under bridges or night in shelters.

(i) Power may also be shared among different social groups such as the religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement.
(ii) In some countries there are constitutional and legal arrangements whereby socially weaker sections and women are represented in the legislatures and administration. For example in India we follow the principle of ‘reserved constituencies’ in assemblies and the parliament of our country. This type of arrangement is meant to give space in the government and administration to diverse social groups who otherwise would feel alienated from the’ government.
(iii) This method is used to give minority communities a fair share in power.

Power may be shared among different social groups such as the religious and linguistic groups. In some countries, there are constitutional and legal arrangements whereby socially weaker sections and women are represented in the legislatures and administration. There is a system of ‘reserved constituencies’ in our country. This type of arrangement is meant to give space in the government and administration to diverse social groups, who otherwise would feel alienated from the government. This method is used to give minority communities a fair share in power. ‘Community Government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement.

Sustainable development refers to the process economic development where resources are used judiciously to satisfy needs of not only present generation but also to conserve them for the use of future generations. Sustainable development takes places without depleting the present natural resources.

Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco tourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism, medical tourism and business tourism. 

(i)More than 15 million people are directly engaged in the tourism industry. Tourism also promotes national integration, provides support to local handicrafts and cultural pursuits.

(ii)It also helps in the development of international understanding about our culture and heritage.

(ii)There is a vast potential for development of tourism in the north-eastern states and the interior parts of Himalayas, but to strategic reasons these have not been encouraged so far.