Formal sector loans: 

(i) Loans from banks and cooperatives. 

(ii) Under supervision of the Reserve Bank of India. 

(iii) Reasonable rates of interest. 

Informal sector loans: 

(i) Loans from moneylenders, relatives, friend, traders, etc.

(ii) No supervision of any institution. 

(iii) Very high rates of interest.

In India there is a multi-party political system. Most characteristic feature of Indian democracy is that it has a multi-party system. It is a system in which many parties across the country run for national election to compete with each other to win political power. Some other examples of countries having multiple political parties are Denmark, Germany, Italy, South Africa, Spain etc. 

The Civil Disobedience movement boycotted foreign cloth and picketed liquor shops. Peasants refused to pay revenue and taxes, village officials resigned.
In many places forest people violated forest laws by going into reserved forests to collect wood and graze cattle.
Worried by the developments the colonial government began arresting the Congress leaders one by one. This led to violent clashes in many places.
Abdul Gaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Gandhiji was arrested in April 1930. Many were killed who protested it.
Mahatma Gandhi was arrested industrial workers of Sholapur attacked police posts, municipal buildings, law courts, railway stations.

In 1815 the European powers of Britain, Russia, prussia and Austria had collectively defeated Napoleon. Their chief representatives met at Vienna to come to a settlement for Europe. The Congress was hosted by Austrian chancellor Duke Metternich. The delegates grew up the Treaty of Vienna in 1815 with the aim of  undoing what Napoleon had transferred in Europe.

1.The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power in France. They were deposed during the French Revolution. France lost its territories which had been annexed under Napoleon.

2. A series of states were carved out on the French frontiers to prevent French expansion in the coming future. Thus , the kingdom of Netherlands which included Belgium was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the south.

Prussia was given new territories on its Western Frontiers while Austria was given control of Northern Italy. The German confederation of 39 States was left and it is.

4. In the east, Russia was given a part of Poland why Prussia was given a portion of Saxony. The main aim was to restore the monarchies  that were overthrown by Napoleon and re-establish the authority of Conservatives in Europe.

1. In 1845, weaver in Silesia had led a Revolt against contractors who supplied them with raw materials and got finished goods.

2.A crow of weavers marched in pairs up to the mansion of their contractors demanding higher wages.

3. They smashed there window panes and also plundered the supply of cloth. As a result, the contractors fled away from their houses with their families.

Culture played an important role in creating the idea of 'nation in Europe:

1. Romanticism was a cultural movement that believed in emotions, intuitions and mystical feelings over reason and science. They tried to evoke the feelings of a common past and shared heritage.

2. Romantics like Johann Gottfried Herder believed that German culture was alive among the common people- das Volk. The idea of nation was popularised through the folk culture of songs, poetry, and dance.

3. Local culture was sought also to reach the large population of illiterate people. In Poland, Karol Kurpinski turned the folk dances and music into nationalist symbols.

4. The language was also essential as a nationalist identity. When Polish was forcefully removed from schools and Russian was imposed everywhere after Russian occupation, the people saw the use of Polish language as a sign of national resistance.

In 1815, the representatives of the European powers - Britain, Russia,Prussia and Austria wanted to establish long-lasting peace and stability after they defeated Napolean.

Thus, they drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 with the intenstion of undoing most of the changes brought about during the Napoleonic wars and creating a new conservative order in Europe.

• The Bourbon dynasty was brought back to power and France lost the territories it had annexed under Napoleon.  
• To prevent the French evasion, a series of states werre set up on the boundaries of France.
• This lead to the setting up of kingdom of the Netherlands (inclusive of Belgium) in the north and the kingdom of Genoa (added to Piedmont) in the south.
• Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers, while Austria was given control of northern Italy.
• However, Napolean's German confederation of 39 states was left untouched.
• In the east, Russia was given part of Poland while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony. 

The idea of satyagraha basically emphasised the power of truth and the demand to search for truth. It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then the physical force was not necessary to fight the oppressor. Without asking vengeance or being aggressive, a satyagrahi could win the battle through nonviolence. This could be done by appealing to the conscience of the oppressor. The common people – including the oppressors – had to be persuaded to see the truth, rather than being forced to accept truth with the help of violence. By this huge and great struggle, the truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi had s strong that this dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.

(i) Stock: 

(a) Material in the environment, which have the potential to satisfied human needs. 

(b) They are not accessed due to the lack of technology. 

(c) Example: Water is a compound of two inflammable gases—hydrogen and oxygen, which can be used as a rich source of energy. But we do not have the required technical knowhow to use them for this purpose. 

(ii) Potential resources: 

(a) They are found in a region. 

(b) They have not been utilized or developed. 

(c) Example: Rajasthan and Gujarat have enormous potential for the development of wind and solar energy, but they are yet to be developed for various reasons.

• Black soils are made up of extremely fine ; clayey material.
• They are well-known for their capacity to hold moisture.
• They are rich in soil nutrients such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
• They develop deep cracks during hot weather, which helps in the proper aeration of the soil.

The Bourbon Restoration was the period of French history following the first fall of Napoleon in 1814 and his final defeat in the Hundred Days in 1815, until the July Revolution of 1830. The brothers of the executed Louis XVI, namely Louis XVIII and Charles X, came to power and reigned in highly conservative fashion. The central tenets of conservatism include tradition, organic society, hierarchy, authority, and property rights. Conservatives seek to preserve a range of institutions such as religion, parliamentary government, and property rights, with the aim of emphasizing social stability and continuity.

Rise of Nationalism in Europe: Before the middle of the nineteenth century, the countries in Europe were not in the form as we know them today. Different regions in Europe were ruled by various multi-national dynastic empires. These were monarchies which enjoyed absolute power over their subjects. Various technological and the ensuing social changes helped in developing the ideas of nationalism. The process of creation of nation states began in 1789; with the French Revolution. It took about hundred years for the idea to gain concrete shape which resulted in the formation of France as a democratic nation state. The trend was followed in other parts of the Europe and led to the establishment of the modern democratic systems in most parts of the world; at the beginning of 20th century.

Unification of Germany took place in 1871. The unification process was led by Bismarck, Chancellor of Prussia, which was the largest German kingdom. Through a series of victorious wars against Austria and France, which were blocking German unification, Bismarck succeeded in unifying Germany under the Prussian king.

Unification of Italy took place in 1871. This process was under the leadership of the King and Chancellor of Piedmont--Sardinia. The unification process was also marked by wars against Austria. Unification was complete when the Pope lost power over Rome and the Papal states.

Unification of Britian took place in 1707 when the kingdoms of England and Scotland formed an union. These kingdoms were earlier separate although they were ruled by the same monarch from London. With the 1707 alliance, Britain became a united political system.

The main objective of treaty of Vienna was to nullify all the changes that had come into existence during Napoleonic wars. The Bourbon dynasty restore its power which had been deposed during the French Revolution. To prevent the expansion of France in future, a number of states were set up on the boundaries of France. The kingdom of Netherland including Belgium was set up in the north and Genoa including Piedmont established in the south.Prussia was given important new territories on the western frontier, while Austria was given control of northern Italy. The German confederation of 39 states which was set up by Napoleon was left untouched. Prussia was given to Russia. The main intention was behind that set up was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon and create a new conservative order in Europe.

This feeling of nationalism became intense in the Balkan region after 1871. The Balkan region formerly comprised the present-day territories of Romania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Croatia, Greece, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro. The people in these countries were called Slavs. The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire in the region made the situation very explosive in the region as every state was jealous of one another and hoped to gain independence at the cost of the other. One by one, its European subject nationalities broke away from the control of the Ottoman Empire and declared independence. As the different Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict.

During this time, many powerful European nations such as England, France, Russia and Germany competed to gain control in the Balkan region.

This competition for gaining prominence in the region finally led to the First World War in 1914.

• The first half of the 18th century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe. The employment opportunities were very scarce as there more job seekers than employment.
•  Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
•  Small producers in town were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods.
•  In Europe, the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of fuedal dues and obligations.
•  The rise of food price and bad harvest led to widespread pauperism around the country.

Social Difference:Social differences are the differences and discriminations that occurs in the society. Many social differences are generally based on the accidents of birth. The differences between males and females, people having different heights and complexion are all examples of social differences caused due to birth. However, not all social differences are based on birth. Some people are atheists, some are God fearing. These differences are chosen by the people themselves.

Social Division: When socail differences become acute and one community is discriminated becasue of the differences, it becomes social division. Under such circumstances, one community is discriminated. For example, social difference between the upper castes and lower castes becomes a social division as the dalits are generally poor and face unjustice and discrimination.

Causes of land degradation:

• Mining sites are abandoned after the excavation work is done, Reaving deep scars of overburdening. In states like Odisha, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, deforestation due to mining has caused severe land degradation.
• Overgrazing in states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra is one of the main reasons behind land degradation.
• Overirrigation and waterlogging lead to increase in salinity and alkalinity in the states of Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, thereby leading to land degradation.
• Mineral processing like grinding of limestone for cement industry and calcite and soapstone for ceremic industry generate huge quantities of dust in the atmosphere. It stops the infiltration of water in the soil.
• Industrial effluents as wastes have become a major source of land and water pollution in many parts of the country.

• Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.

• The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821.

• Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans who had sympathies for ancient Greek culture.

• Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire.

• The English poet Lord Byron organised funds and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824.

• Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.