Giuseppe Mazzini He was an Italian revolutionary, who was born in Genoa in 1807. He was sent into exile at the age of 24 in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He founded two secret societies, namely Young Italy and Young Europe. He inspired the young members of these societies to involve in revolutionary activities.
Following his ideas and on the model of his secret societies, more such societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Austrian Chancellor Duke Matternich once described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

The ideal which is unlikely exist the vision society for Sorrieu present utopian in his prints in 1848. In the 19th century, he dedicated people to obtain distinct nations.

To the nations in a concept for emerging the several countries and was ruled by a monarchy. The 1848 revolution has wanted the establishment with nations to organize individual freedom.

Three important reasons why the non-cooperation movement gradually slowed down in the cities are as follows:

• Whereas mill cloth was cheap due to mass production, khadi cloth was expensive. Hence, the urban poor couldn’t abstain from using mill cloth for too long.

• Alternative Indian institutions were slow to come up. As a result the non-cooperating Indians ultimately had to go back to British institutions.

• As a result, the students started attending government schools again and lawyers joined back in government courts.

The non-cooperation movement was launched on 5th September 1920 by the Indian National Congress (INC) under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.

Following are the measures adopted by the British government to repress the movement started against the Rowlatt Act:

• Fearing that railway and telegraph lines might be cut by those protesting against the Act, the government unleashed harsher than usual measures to suppress the movement.

• Local leaders were imprisoned and Gandhi was prohibited from entering Delhi. On 10th April, 1919 the police fired upon a peaceful procession in Amritsar.

• This action of the government resulted in attacks on banks, post offices and railway stations. Martial law was soon imposed and General Dyer took command.

Blood and Iron (German: Blut und Eisen) is the name given to a speech made by Otto von Bismarck given on 30 September 1862, at the time when he was Minister President of Prussia, about the unification of the German territories.

The role of women in nationalist struggles. Women played a very important role in nationalist struggles all over the world. They participated equally mostly in every movements. They faced torture of police but still they stood by their male counterparts. A large number of women participated actively in the political matters over the year. Sometimes they led the movements also, formed many political associations, founded newspapers and took part in political meetings and demonstrations. The most famous example is the French revolution where women participated equally as men. Liberty is personified as a women and also liberal nationalism proposed the idea of universal suffrage, leading to women's active participation in nationalist movements in Europe. So, on 18 May 1848, when the Constitution was drafted in the Frankfurt Parliament the controversial issue of the extending political rights to women was raised. Still women were deprived of suffrage during the election of the assembly and they were admitted in the Frankfurt Parliament Assembly only as spectators. But this did not diminish their contribution to the national struggle. Delphine De Girardin, an educated woman, criticized by saying that if servants doing the household work were granted the right to vote then why not women who are mothers, housewives managing everything at home. Women were given little or no political rights, right to vote etc. till the end of 19th century.

The unification of Italy is the result of dedication, contribution and effort of three great leaders Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi.

During 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini had tried to unite Italy. He formed the secret society called Young Italy. But both the uprising in 1831 and 1848 failed.

Even the ruling elites also wanted a unified Italy which would offer economic development and political dominance.

The unification of Italy was a result of many wars. Chief Minister Cavour made a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.

A large number of armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the unification movement.

In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicily succeeded to drive out the Spanish rulers with the help of local people.

In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as king of United Italy.

Prudential Reason: Power sharing helps in reducing the conflict between various social groups. Hence, power sharing is necessary for maintaining social harmony and peace.

Moral Reason: The avoiding conflict in society and preventing majority tyranny are considered as prudential reasons for power sharing. Maintaining the spirit of democracy is considered as the moral reason for power sharing.

The Yajurveda from yajus meaning "prose mantra" and veda meaning  is the Veda of prose mantras. An ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, it is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such as those before the yajna fire. Yajurveda is one of the four Vedas, and one of the scriptures of Hinduism. The exact century of Yajurveda's composition is unknown, and estimated by scholars to be around 1200 to 1000 BCE, contemporaneous with Samaveda and Atharvaveda.

The Yajurveda is broadly grouped into two – the "black" Yajurveda and the "white" Yajurveda. The term "black" implies "the un-arranged, unclear, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" which implies the "well arranged, clear" Yajurveda.The black Yajurveda has survived in four recensions, while two recensions of white Yajurveda have survived into the modern times.

In 1834, the customs union of Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and was joined by most of the German states.

• The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies from over thirty to two.
• The creation of a network of railways further stimulated mobility, harnessing economic interests to national unification.
• A wave of economic nationalism strengthened the wider nationalist sentiments growing at the time.
• Varied currencies and weights and measures were obstacles to economic growth, so the creation of a unified economic territory allowing the unhindered movement of goods, people and capital was needed. So, Zollverein was formed.

(i)The literacy rate among women is only 54 per cent as compared to 76 per cent among men. This is because women are deprived of an equal access to education as the males in the society. Even a very small percentage of girls go for higher education and drop-out rate is also higher among the girls.

(ii)Proportion of women in highly paid jobs is very small. On an average Indian woman works an hours more than a man. Yet much of her work is not paid and therefore often not valued.

(iii)The preference to male child over the female child has led to *** selective abortion. This has lowered *** ratio in India.

(iv)Women are exploited and harassed at the workplace and at home. These are cases of harassment, exploitation in the urban areas as well. They are even subjected to domestic violence at homes.

Textile industry occupies a unique position in Indian economy due to following reasons: 
(i) It occupies a unique position in the Indian economy because it contributes significantly to Industrial production (14%). 
(ii) It employs about 35 million people directly and earns foreign exchange of about 24.6 percent.
(iii) The Industry has close links with agriculture and provides a living to farmers, cotton ball pluckers and workers engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving, dying, designing, packaging, tailoring, and sewing. 
(iv) The handspun khadi provides large-scale employment to weavers in their homes as the cottage industry.
(v) India exports yarn to Japan and export cotton goods to USA, UK, Russia, France, East European countries, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka and African countries. 
(vi) We have a large share in the world trade of cotton yarn, accounting for one-fourth of the total trade.

Control of industrial pollution of fresh water:

1. Minimizing the use of water for processing by reusing.

2. Harvesting of rain water to meet water requirement.

3. Treating hot water and effluents before releasing them in rivers and ponds.

4. Regulation of use of ground water by industries.

5. Installing water treatment plants at the industrial sites for recycling.

Manufacturing sector is considered the backbone of economic development because:

(i)Manufacturing industries not only help in modernising agriculture, which forms the backbone of our economy, they also reduce the heavy dependence of people on agricultural income by providing them jobs in secondary and tertiary sectors.

(ii)Industrial development is a precondition for eradication of unemployment and poverty from our country. 

(iii)It also helps in bringing down regional disparities by establishing industries in tribal and backward areas.

(iv)Export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce, and brings in much needed foreign exchange.

(v)Countries that transform their raw materials into a wide variety of furnished goods of higher value are prosperous.

The Basics conditions are:
1. Giving equal powers to all groups.
2. Avoiding Majoritarianism in holding powers. 
3. Not allow social differences to overlap as they are dangerous.
4. Avoiding Communalism and making a practice of Secularism.
5. Improve economic growth of minority groups and supporting them.

Main Features of Federalism :

(i) There are two or more levels of government. India has three levels.

(ii) Each level of government has its own jurisdiction in matters of legislation, taxation and administration even though they govern the same citizens.

(iii) Powers and functions of each tier of government is specified and guaranteed by Constitution.

(iv) The Supreme Court has been given power to settle disputes between federal governments.

(v) Fundamental provisions of Constitution cannot be altered by any one level of government. It applies to India also.

 (vi) Sources of revenue between different levels is specified by Constitution.

(vii) There is mutual trust and agreement between the government at different levels.

• Globalisation is an old phenomenon.
• It started at the time of colonisation.
• In the nineteenth century when European traders came to India, during that time as well the Indian spices were exported to different countries of the world and farmers of south India were encouraged and enhanced to grow these crops.
• Till today it is one of the major items of export from India.
• Under globalisation, majorly after 1990, the farmers in India have been exposed to new challenges and task.
• Despite being an important and major producer of rice, cotton, rubber, tea, coffee, jute and spices, our agricultural products are not able to compete with the developed countries due to the highly subsidised agriculture in other foreign countries.
• Today, Indian agriculture marks itself at the crossroads.
• To make agriculture successful and profitable, proper and considerable amount of thrust should be given to the improvement of the condition of marginal and small farmers.