The assemblage of specific plants living in association with each other in a particular environmental framework is termed as vegetation.
Natural Vegetation refers to a plant community which has grown naturally without human aid and has been left undisturbed by humans for a long time. This is also known as Virgin Vegetation.  Cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part of vegetation but not natural vegetation.

Mineral resources are limited. It takes million of years for their formation and therefore, these resources are non-renewable and non-replenishable. Increasing consumption and continued extraction of ores lead to increasing costs of extraction and a sharp decrease in their quality and quantity.
So, it is most important for us to conserve mineral resources as it is feared that with this rate of consumption the day is not far away when most of the metallic and non-metallic mineral reserves and fossil fuel deposits will be fully exhausted.

Money is the modern form of currency that is accepted as the medium of exchange in countries.
Modern currency is accepted as a medium of exchange because:-
(1) It is authorised by the Government of the Country.
(2)No individual legally can refuse a payment made in the Country's money format.

Gross Cropped Area (GCA) is the total area sown once as well as more than once in a particular year. When the crop is sown on a piece of land for twice, the area is counted twice in GCA. On the other hand, Net Sown Area is the area sown with crops but is counted only once.

‘Sri Lankan Tamils’ started their struggle by lanching their political parties for the;
(i) recognition of Tamil as an official language and regional autonomy.
(ii) For regional autonomy.
(iii) Equality of opportunity in securing education and jobs.
In order to protest for their demand they started a political struggle in the way of conflict with the government.
(i) By 1980s several political organisation were formed demanding an independent Tamil Elam (State) in northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
(ii) The distrust between the two communities turned into wide spread conflict which soon turned into a civil war.
(iii) Asa resultthousandsofpeopleof posh communities have been killed and caused a terrible set back to the social, cultural and economic life of the country.

The important characteristic features of local government are as follows-
(i) Local government has a well defined area allotted by the state government.
(ii) Local government provides active participation of local people.
 (iii) Local government provides civic amenities to the people for the healthy living of the people.
 (iv) Local unit can generate finance by imposing taxes on local people.
 (v) The local government is responsible for the overall development of the local people.
(vi) Local government units are accountable to local people. The local government act in accordance to the states by which they are established.

1. Uniform three tier Panchayati Raj system at the village, intermediate and district levels. However, States with a population of less than 20 lakhs are given the option to avoid intermediate level Panchayat.
2. Gram Sabha has been hailed as foundation stone of the Panchayat System.
3. State legislatures by law may make provisions for the composition of the Panchayats.
4. Elections to all the three tiers and to the Chairperson of village Panchayat shall be direct.
5. The Chairperson of a Panchayat and other members of Panchayat shall have the right to vote in the meetings of Panchayat.
6. The Chairperson of a Panchayat at the village level shall be elected in such a manner as the legislature of a state may by law, provide. The Chairperson of a Panchayat at the intermediate level or district level shall be elected by and amongst, the elected members.
7. Reservation of seats for the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in proportion to their population. Out of the total seats reserved for the SCs and STs Not less than one-third seats to be reserved for Women belonging to SCs and STs.
8. One-third of seats at all the three levels and also the Chairperson elected to three levels, to be reserved for women. It includes the number of seats reserved for SC and ST women.

(a) Power Sharing among the Different Organs of Government (i.e., Horizontal distribution of power) In this form of power sharing, power is assigned by the Constitution among different organs of government such as the legislature, executive and judiciary. This type of distribution ensures separation of powers among the organs at the same level, so that none of the organs can exercise unlimited power. Each organ puts a check n the others in order to maintain balance of power under the system of checks and balances. This arrangement is as below in India.
(b) Power Sharing among Governments at Different Levels (Vertical distribution of power sharing) In this form of power sharing, power is shared at the different levels of government.
The overall governing body for the country is known as ‘Union Government’ or ‘Federal Government’ and the government at the constituent units is known as State Government. The third or lowest level is local government, i.e., Municipalities and Panchayats (in India).
(c) Power Sharing among Political Parties, Pressure Groups and Movements In a democracy, power is also shared among different political parties, pressure groups and movements. Democracy provides the citizens a freedom to choose their rulers. This freedom is provided by various political parties which contest elections to win them. Such competition ensures that power is not always in the hand of a single person.
In the long run, power is shared among different political parties that represent different ideologies and social groups. Sometimes this kind of sharing can be direct, when two or more parties form an alliance to contest elections. If their alliance is elected, they form a coalition government and thus share power. In a democracy, various pressure groups and movements also remain active. They will also have an indirect share in government power, either through participation in government committees or bringing influence on the decision making process. An example is the currently running UFA Government in India, which is coalition government.
(d) Power Sharing among Different Social Groups In a democracy especially, in multiethnic society, power is also shared among social groups such as religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community Government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement. There are constitutional and legal arrangements in India whereby socially weaker sections and women are represented in the legislatures and administration. We have a, system of ‘reserved constituencies’ in State Assemblies and the Parliament. This type of arrangement is meant to give proper share in the government and administration to diverse social groups who otherwise would feel alienated from the government.

The soil profile is the layers of soil found when we go deeper into the ground. There are three main layers of soil – top soil, subsoil and parent rock.
Topsoil ( A – horizon):Top soil is the upper most layer of the soil which is made up of humus and small particles of rocks. It is dark in colour due to the presence of humus. Plants grow in this soil as humus makes this layer porous and fertile.
Sub soil (B – horizon): It is the layer situated below the topsoil. This layer does not have much humus and thus lighter in colour. Bits of rocks and some nutrients are the main constituents of this layer. Rain water collects in this layer.
Parent rock (C – horizon): Parent rock is the layer below the subsoil which consists of pieces of rocks with cracks and crevices. Below parent rock is the layer of solid rock called bedrock. Water table is formed over it.