Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation on the material at the Earth’s surface within the bodies of water. These rocks are formed in four ways:

1. Deposition of weathered remains of other rocks
2. Accumulation and the consolidation of sediments
3. Deposition of the results of biogenic activity
4. Precipitation from solution.

With too much of printed money in circulation, the value of German mark fell. As the value of German mark collapsed, prices of goods soared. The image of Germarts carrying cartloads of currency notes to buy a loaf of bread was widely publicised evoking worldwide sympathy. This crisis came to be known as ‘hyperinflation’ a situation when prices rise phenomenally high.

(i) To set up his manufacturing unit Mishrilal needed the following capital   (a)Fixed Capital in the form of the sugarcane crushing machine.   (b) Working Capital in the form of money for buying sugarcane from other farmers for crushing and for paying the electricity bill of running the crushing machine. (ii)  The labour is provided by him and his family. Otherwise he will employ landless labourers. (iii)(a) Mishrilal has set up a small scale unit.   (b) The farm holdings in the village are very small of about 2 hectares in size and production of sugarcane is low as more area is under wheat, so raw material is also less.   (c) He has to pay for the electricity to run the machine.   (d) Since the industry is small scale, production is less and therefore, he is unable to increase his profit. (iv) Conditions under which he may face a toss can be any of the following

 (i) Robert Owen: He wanted to form a cooperative community called 'New Harmony', in Indiana. He felt that the government should also support such cooperatives and encourage them. (ii) Louis Blanc: He wanted the government to encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist enterprises. He believed that cooperatives should be formed with the cooperation of the people and its profit should be divided according to the work done by members

Mumbai and chennai are south of the tropic of cancer, while delihi is north of it. Due to the tilt of axis of rotation of the earth, parts of the earth north of the tropic of cancer will never have the noon sun exactly overhead. Parts to its  south will have the noonday sun exactly overhead twice a year, between the time of vernal equinox in march and autumnal equinox in september.

The eighteenth century witnessed the emergence of social groups, termed the middle class, who earned their wealth through an expanding overseas trade and from the manufacture of goods such as woollen and silk textiles that were either exported or bought by the richer members of society. In addition to merchants and manufacturers, the third estate included professions such as lawyers or administrative officials. All of these were educated and believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth. Rather, a person’s social position must depend on his merit.

Social Conditions: The Russian Society was divided into two classes before the Revolution. They were the rich and the poor. The nobles, feudal lords and the rich belonged to the rich class. The peasants, labourers and serfs belonged to the poor class. The vast majority of Russia’s people were agriculturists. About 85 per cent of the Russian empire’s population earned their living from agriculture. However, most of the peasants only cultivated the land. The land mainly belonged to the Church and the nobility. In Russia, peasants wanted the lands of the noble to be given to them. They frequently refused to pay land rent.

Political Conditions: Russia was a monarchy which was ruled by Czar Nicholas II. People had no freedom and could not form any political parties.

Economic Conditions: The First World War had a disastrous impact on the economy of Russia. While retreating from various battlefields, the Russian army destroyed crops and buildings in the country to prevent the enemy from using them as resources. The destruction of crops and buildings added over 3 million refugees in Russia. People in Russia began to question their country’s participation in the war. Industrial production declined in Russia as able-bodied men were sent to the warfront to fight in the First World War.

Living and working conditions for most peasants were dreadful, famine and starvation were common. People worked for long hours, their wages were low and rent was high. In factory towns people lived in overcrowded slums and there were very few sanitary facilities. The Soviet working class was, according to Marxist–Leninist theory, supposed to be the Soviet Union's ruling class during its transition from the socialist stage of development to full communism. However, it's commonly argued that its influence over production and policies diminished as the USSR's existence progressed. The Russian nobility and royalty only made up under 1% of the population. They enjoyed a comfortable life without poverty. Their children - both boys and girls - could attend schools and universities. They lived in big stone houses in cities and often had one or several country estates.

Features of Himalayan Mountains :

(i)   The Himalayan mountains are the youngest mountains in the world. They are folded mountains.

(ii) They run along the northern border of India and form an arc which is around 2,400 km long.

(iii) Their width is up to 150 km in Arunachal Pradesh and 400 km in Kashmir.

(iv) They are the loftiest and the most rugged mountains.

(v) The altitudinal variations are greater in the eastern part than in the western part.

(vi) They form an arc.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Delhi, Lakshadweep, Puducherry (Pondicherry).

The upper most portion of the Himalayas ( the greater Himalayas) is known as the Himadri  while the region below the Himadri is known as the Himachal ( the lesser Himalayas).

The Himadri has an average elevation of 6000 m above sea level while the Himachal has an average elevation of 4500 m.

The Himadri comprises of the zone of high snow capped mountains well over 8000 m while the Himachal consists of hill stations like Shimla , Nainital , Manali etc.

The Himadri has mountain vegetation while the Himachal has evergreen and oak forests.

Maritime climate is also known as oceanic climate. This type of climate is experienced by regions which are located near seas or oceans. It is neither too hot nor too cold. The average range of temperature is low. Mumbai, Kochi and Thiruvananthapuramexperience maritime climate. 

Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte:

• After the French Revolution, France became a republic.
• The Jacobins introduced some radical reforms but they under Robespierre followed the policies so relentlessly that he himself was guillotine in July 1794.
• The fall of the Jacobin government allowed the wealthier middle class to seize power. Two legislative councils were elected, who then appointed a Directory, an executive made of five members
• Directors often clashed with legislative Councils and the latter sought to dismiss them.
• Political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of military dictator Napoleon Bonaparte

Causes of the French Revolution:

Despotic rule of Louis XVI: He became the ruler of France in 1774. He had drained the financial resources of France in wars. For the cost of his regular extravagant expenses, he increased taxes which were paid by the third estate.
Division of French society: The French society was divided into three estates; first, second and third estates, respectively. Among them, First and Second Estates had 10 per cent of the total population and were the clergy and nobles. They enjoyed all privileges. Rest of the 90 per cent was of the third estate, which paid all kinds of direct or indirect taxes. This kind of discrimination led to the revolution by the third estate.
Rising prices: The population of France had increased. This resulted into more demand of food grains. So the price of bread rose rapidly, which the poor could not afford to buy. So the gap between the rich and poor widened.
Inspiration of the philosophers: Philosophers like John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu propagated the ideas of having a society where people would enjoy freedom, equal laws and equal opportunities. Their ideas inspired the people of France to realise their dreams.
Role of middle class: The 18th century witnessed the emergence of social groups termed as middle class, who earned their wealth through an expanding trade of the manufactured goods, being exported. There were other professionals also like lawyers, administrative officials who were all educated. They believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth.

The revolution was triggered when the state’s general convention was held in Versailles on May 5, 1789.

Third estate demanded double representation and ended up separating from the first and second estate.

King secretly brought troops to the Paris and caused havoc among his own citizens. People started protesting in huge numbers and stormed the fort of Bastille.

The January 1905 incident began as a relatively peaceful protest by disgruntled steelworkers in St Petersburg. ... The 'Bloody Sunday' shootings triggered a wave of general strikes, peasant unrest, organised terrorism and political mobilisation that became known as the 1905 Revolution. On 22 January 1905, Father Gapon led a march to deliver a petition to the Tsar. This event became known as Bloody Sunday and is seen as one of the key causes of the 1905 Revolution. The aftermath brought about a short-lived revolution in which the Tsar lost control of large areas of Russia.

The second is labour i.e., people who carry out the work for production.

The four main requirements for the production of goods and services are (a) The first requirement is land and other natural resources. (b) The second is labour i.e., people who carry out the work for production. (c) The third is physical capital i.e., varieties of inputs that are required for production such as fixed capital (Building,   equipment,   machinery, tools, etc.) and working capital (cash, raw materials, etc.). (d) The fourth requirement is human capital, which may include technology, qualified manpower, etc. The items under physical capital are fixed capital and working capital.

When King Louis XVI refused to summon a joint session of the three Estates of the French society, the representatives of the Third Estate staged a walkout from the Parliament. They convened on a tennis court near the royal palace and proclaimed themselves to be the National Assembly, representing the whole of the French nation. They took an oath to stay united in their fight for the achievement of sovereignty for the French people.

Young fold mountains are also mountains that are less than 100 million years old. Where the old fold mountains are more than 500 million years old young fold mountains are comparably younger in age. However, young fold mountains also have ridges, volcanoes, valleys, and major-fault- block ranges. The Himalayas are known as the young fold mountains because they have been formed only few million years ago. They were formed because of the folding of the earth's crust due to tectonic activity (fold mountains are formed when two tectonic plates collide with one another).

1) Threat to human and animal lives.
2) Falling of buildings.
3) Cracking of ground.
4) Short circuits & fire due to breaking of electric lines.
5) Earthquakes in sea floor may create Tsunamis.

Important Parallels of Latitudes: Apart from the equator (0⁰) and the Poles (90⁰); there are four important parallels of latitudes. They are as follows:

1. Tropic of Cancer 23.5⁰ N (23⁰ 30’N) or 23 degrees 30 minute north
2. Tropic of Capricorn 23.5⁰ S (23⁰ 30’S) or 23 degrees 30 minute south
3. Arctic Circle 66.5⁰ N (66⁰ 30’N) or 66 degrees 30 minute north
4. Antarctic Circle 66.5⁰ N (66⁰ 30’N) or 66 degrees 30 minute south

Fig: Important Parallels

The Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle are present in the Northern Hemisphere. The Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle are present in the Southern Hemisphere.

Heat Zones of the Earth

Torrid Zone: Between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, the mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once in a year on all latitudes. This happens because the sun rays come straight to these latitudes at least once in a year. So, this part of the earth receives the maximum heat from the sun. This zone is called the Torrid Zone.

Temperate Zones: Beyond the tropics, the mid-day sun is never overhead. This happens because the sun rays come at a slant in these areas. So, this part of the earth receives mild temperature. These zones are called the Temperate Zones.

Frigid Zone: Areas between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole and those between the Antarctic Circle and the South Pole receive sun rays at a big slant. Due to this, the sun is never much above the horizon. So, this part of the earth receives the least amount of heat and remains very cold. These zones are called Frigid Zones.

The Himalayas are very useful to India in many ways. ... The Himalayas are a great climatic barrier. They save our country from the cold and dry winds of Central Asia, It also prevents the rain-laden monsoon winds of Indian Ocean from crossing over to Northern countries and causes heavy rain-fall in the Northern India. Perhaps the most useful natural quality for humans that the Himalayas provides is that it is a steady, reliable water source across Northern India. In the summer when it scarcely rains, the snow on top of the mountains melts and fills lots of rivers with water which is also used for producing electricity.

The members of the Jacobin club belonged mainly to the less prosperous sections of society. They included small shopkeepers, artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch-makers, printers, as well as servants and daily-wage workers. Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre.