The following month, amid a wave of violence in which Parisian insurrectionists massacred hundreds of accused counterrevolutionaries, the Legislative Assembly was replaced by the National Convention, which proclaimed the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the French republic. The result of the French Revolution was the end of the monarchy. King Louis XVI was executed in 1793. The revolution ended when Napoleon Bonaparte took power in November 1799. In 1804, he became Emperor.

Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the first temporary chairman of the Constituent Assembly. Later, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President and its Vice President was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee. BN Rau was the constitutional advisor.

The word 'radicals' is popularly used to designate individuals, parties, and movements that wish to change drastically any existing practice, institution, or social system.

In the 19th and 20th century Europe, the radicals 

•wanted a government duly elected by the majority of the country’s population.

•upported women’s movements to achieve voting rights.

• opposed the privileges enjoyed by landowners and wealthy factory owners

• were not against the notion of private property but were against the concentration of money in the hands of few sections of society.

The three parallel ranges of Himalayas are the Greater Himalayas or Himadri, Lesser Himalayas or Himachal and Shivaliks.

The northernmost part of the Himalayas is named as the Greater Himalayas or Himadri, which is the highest among these three layers and contain the highest peaks, including Mt. Everest.

The next Himalayan range is known as the Lesser Himalayas or Himachal, containing the famous ranges of Dhaula Dhar, Pir Panjal and Mahabharat, as well as all the important hill stations, like Kashmir, Kulu, Kangra Valley and Darjeeling.

The outermost range is called Shivaliks and its height is only 900 to 1000 metres, as it is mainly formed from the deposits of the Himalayan Rivers flowing down from the greater heights.

Economic activities can be classified into market activities and non-market activities.

1. Market activities involve remuneration to anyone who performs the activity. These include production of goods and services for sale in the market.

2. On the other hand, non-market activities are the production activities performed for self-consumption. These include consumption and processing of primary products and own account production of fixed assets.

Louis XVI of France sentenced to death on the charge of treason. As he secretely held a meeting with the king of Austria and Prussia to attack on France. This is because to stop the revolt that was going in France at that time.

Subsistence crisis is an extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered. The Factors Responsible for this Type of Crises were: 
(i) The population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789. This led to a rapid increase in the demand for foodgrains. Production of grains could not keep pace with the demand. So the price of bread which was the staple diet of the majority rose rapidly. Most worker were employed as labourers in workshops whose owner fixed their wages. But wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. So, the gap between the poor and the rich widened. 
(ii) Things became worse whenever drought or haul reduced the harvest. This led to a subsistence crisis.

Robespierre was a political leader of the Jacobin club.

•  He followed a policy of severe control and punishment.
•  All those he saw as "enemies",ex-nobles and clergy and even people of his own party was arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal.
•  And this period from 1793 to 1794 was known as the 'Reign of Terror'. 

In the Northern Hemisphere, the latitudes are designated as degrees north (°N). For instance, 10°N, 20°N, and so on till 90°N (which is the North Pole). Similarly, there are latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere. These are designated as degrees south (°S), and 90°S is the South Pole.

• Gondwanaland is an ancient supercontinent which got split around 180 million years ago.
• Gondwana comprises of Africa, Australia, Antartica and South America.
• It is said that India was a part of Australia at the time of Gondwanaland because the southwestern plates of India and north eastern plates of Australia look like they were separated.

• Gondwanaland is an ancient supercontinent which got split around 180 million years ago.
• Gondwana comprises of Africa, Australia, Antartica and South America.
• It is said that India was a part of Australia at the time of Gondwanaland because the southwestern plates of India and north eastern plates of Australia look like they were separated.

The "Spirit of Laws" was written by Montesquieu in 1748 in which he has given his theory of separation of powers within a state. 

The great Napoleon was born on 15th August 1769 to Carlo maria and Letizia Ramolino. He used to speak French and was very well educated. He led many successful campaigns against the enemies of the French revolution and crowned himself as an emperor of France. The Napoleon introduced many laws like the private property, uniform system of weights and also the measures provided by the decimal system. The armies of Napoleon were observed everywhere by the enemy force and finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815. 

Throughout the eighteenth century, there was very little criticism of slavery.
1. Several long debates took place but a law abolishing slavery was never passed by the national assembly fearing opposition from business men whose income depended upon slave trade.
2. The jacobins lead by robespierre were strongly against slavery.
3. It was finally the convention that in 1794 legislated to free all slaves.
this proved to be a short term measure because ten years later, napoleon reintroduced slavery but abolition of slavery was however, one of the most revolutionary reforms of the jacobin regime.

The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. The document lays down the framework demarcating fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens. It is the longest written constitution of any country on earth.  B. R. Ambedkar, chairman of the drafting committee, is widely considered to be its chief architect.

It imparts constitutional supremacy (not parliamentary supremacy, since it was created by a constituent assembly rather than Parliament) and was adopted by its people with a declaration in its preamble. Parliament cannot override the constitution.

B. R. Ambedkar and Constitution of India on a 2015 postage stamp of India. It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949 and became effective on 26 January 1950. The constitution replaced the Government of India Act 1935 as the country's fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became the Republic of India. To ensure constitutional autochthony, its framers repealed prior acts of the British parliament in Article 395. India celebrates its constitution on 26 January as Republic Day.

The constitution declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic, assuring its citizen's justice, equality and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity.

Karl Marx (1818-1883) argued that workers should make a cooperative society in which collective ownership of land and factories would be promoted. According to Marx, it was the way to get rid of ills of capitalism. Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) also added other ideas to the concept of socialism.

Democracy is based on consultation and discussion. A democratic decision always involves many persons, discussions and meeting. When a number of people put their heads together, they are able to point out possible mistakes in any decision. Even though this takes time but taking time over important decisions is a must. This reduces the chances of rash or irresponsible decisions. Thus, democracy improves the quality of decision making.

China's famine of 1958-1961 was the worst recorded famine in the world history. Nearly three crore people died in this famine. The government in China did not respond to the problem of food scarcity the way it should have because of a not so good government policy. If China  had multi-party elections, an opposition party and a press  free to criticize the government, then so many people may not have died in the famine.

The most oppressed race in Germany were the Jews also known as the Israelites or the Jewish people.

Hitler and the Nazis who were behind the death of 6 million Jews blamed the Jewish people for losing the World War One and for the economic crisis in Germany. This event is also known as the Holocaust which was a genocide that ended up with the death of six million Jews. This was at the end of the World War II.

 This attempt of the Nazis to exterminate the Jewish people made the Jews the most oppressed race in Germany. 

The biggest waterfall in India is the Kunchikal waterfalls. It is located on the Shimoga - Udupi border of Karnataka. The water that flows down the waterfall is from the river Varahi. It is ranked as the 116th in the world and India highest waterfall. 

For the following reasons China is not regarded as a democratic country:

1. China is ruled by a single party known as the  Communist Party.

2. Though elections are held there, only the members of the Communist party or its allied parties can contest polls. In this way, only the Chinese Communist party forms the government in China.

3. China does not hold fair and free elections. Therefore, China cannot be regarded as a Democracy.

During the 1905 Revolution, there were many changes that were done by Tsar.

One such change was dismissing of the first Duma in the span of 75 days.

This was done because he didn’t want anyone to put the question on his authority and also he didn’t want to suffer from any of the power reduction.

Struggle to survive:-
i. Population of France increased by 23million to 28 million.
ii. This led to rapid increase in demand of food grain,while production didn’t increased.
iii.The price of bread rose rapidly. It was the staple food of the majority.
iv. The wages of the workers didn’t increased with the rise in prices which led to the gap between the poor and rich increased.
v. It became worse when bad weather conditions reduced the harvest .

The arguments in favour of democracy are:

 (i) A democratic government is a better government because it is a more accountable form of government.

(ii) Democracy improves the quality of decision-making.

(iii) Democracy provides methods to deal with differences and conflicts.

 (iv) Democracy enhances the dignity of citizens.

(v) Democracy is better than other forms of government as it allows rulers to correct its own mistake.

arguments against democracy:
(i) Leaders keep changing in a democracy which leads to instability.
(ii) Democracy is all about political competition and power play. There is no scope for morality.
(iii) Delays are often made because many people have to be consulted in a democracy.
(iv) Elected leaders do not know the best interest of the people. It leads to bad decisions.
(v) Democracy leads to corruption for it is based on electoral competition.

Arguement in favour of democracy

1. A democratic government is a better government because it is a more accountable form of government.

2. Democracy improves the quality of decision making and reduces the chances of rash or irresponsible decisions taken.

3. Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts.

4. Democracy enhances the dignity of citizens. 

5. Democracy is better than other forms of government because it allows the citizens to correct its own mistakes. 

Subsistence Crisis: It is an extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered. The demand for foodgrains was increased as population had increased in France from 23 million to 28 million. Production of grains could not keep pace with the demand. So the price of bread, which was the staple diet of the majority, rose rapidly. Most workers were employed as labourers in workshops whose owner fixed their wages. But wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. So the gap between the poor and the rich widened. Things became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest. This led to subsistence crisis, something that occurred frequently in France during the Old Regime.

Rock Cycle

The process of transformation of rocks from one form to an other in a cyclic manner is known as the rock cycle. It includes the following processes:

• Hot lava cools down to form igneous rocks.
• These igneous rocks are then broken down into small particles which are transported and then deposited. This results in the formation of sedimentary rocks
• When these igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to great heat and pressure, they change into metamorphic rocks.
• These metamorphic rocks under heat and pressure breakdown and form hot lava.
• This hot magma then again cools down and forms igneous rocks.