Theory of Plate Tectonics:

(i)According to this theory, the crust,upper part of the earth has been formed out of seven major and some minor plates. 

(ii)The movement of the plates results in the building up of stresses within the plates and the continental rocks above, leading to folding, faulting and volcanic activity.
 

(iii)Broadly, these plate movements are classified into three types. While some plates come towards each other and form convergent boundary.

(iv)Some plates move away from each other and form divergent boundary. In the event of two plates coming together they may either collide and crumble, or one may slide under the other.

(v)At times, they may also move horizontally past each other and form transform boundary.

The Himalayan Mountains are young fold mountains which run in the west to east direction. They run over about 2,400 km. The width of the mountains varies from 2,400 km in Kashmir to 150 km in Arunachal Pradesh. The Himalayas are divided into three parallel ranges. They are:

• The Himadri: It is the northernmost range of the Himalayas. This range is also known as the Great or the Inner Himalayas. This range has some of the highest peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres. The core part of this Himalayan range is made of granite. As it is always covered with snow, many glaciers originate in this range.
• The Himachal: It is also known as Himachal or the lesser Himalayas. This range lies to the south of the Himadri. The height of this mountain range varies from 3,700 to 4,500 metres. The Pir Panjal Range is the longest range. The Mahabharat and Dhauladhar ranges are also important ranges. This range has the famous valleys of Kashmir, Kangra and Kullu located in Himachal Pradesh. All the famous hill stations such as Mussoorie, Shimla, Nainital and Manali are located in the Himachal range.
• The Siwaliks: These are the outermost range of the Himalayas. Their altitude varies between 900 and 1100 metres. The Siwaliks are formed as a result of depositions brought down by rivers from the northernmost Himalayan range. Dehradun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some longitudinal valleys which lie between the lesser Himalayas and the Siwaliks.

Different ideas are as follows:
(i) Liberals believed in changing society, thought that only propertied men should have right to vote.
(ii) Radicals believed in rule of majority, supported women's right to vote.
(iii) Conservatives approved both liberals and radicals, accepted the change but believed that past has to be respected.

Unemployment is an economic and social problem. Unemployment is an economic problem in the sense that unemployed persons will be consumers only without being a producer. Non utilisation of human resources due to unemployment involves double cost of maintenance and loss of output. Unemployment is a social problem in the sense that it causes enormous sufferings to unemployed workers due to their reduced or nil income. Many social evils like dishonesty, immorality, drink¬ing, gambling, robbery, etc are the outcome of unemployment. It causes social disruption in the society and the government has to incur a heavy unproductive expenditure on law and order. 

Types of unemployment found in India are:
(i) Disguised unemployment: In disguised unemployment, people appear to be employed while actually they are not adding to the productivity. This usually happens among family members engaged in agricultural activity.
(ii) Seasonal unemployment: Seasonal unemployment happens when people are not able to find jobs during some months of the year. Agriculture in India is not a full time occupation. It is seasonal. This type of unemployment is usually found in agriculture.
(iii) Educated unemployment: It has become a common phenomenon in urban areas. Many youth with matriculation, graduation and post graduation degrees are not able to find jobs. A study showed that unemployment of graduates and post graduates has increased faster than among matriculate youths.

Japan became a developed country despite being poor in natural resources:
(i) They have invested in human resources.
(ii) They import the required resources for their industries.
(iii) Efficiency of the people has made the country rich.
(iv) The latest technology has helped in the development.
(v) They have invested in the field of health and education.

• Provide better education and training to develop more skilled and innovative work force.
• Investment in the type of education that ensure good employment opportunities which lead to the improvement in standard of living of people and also National Income of the country.
• Investment on healthcare facilities of the people which lead to healthy environment for them to flourish and develop.
• The government should invest in rural and backward regions so that people living in these areas can help in economic development.
• A large skilled workforce without sustainable and better employment facilities will remain unproductive and will be burden on economy rather tthan contributing in itself. So a country like India should focus on generating better employment facilities

A large population can be turned into a productive asset by investment in human capital by spending resources on education and health for all, training of industrial and agricultural workers in the use of modern technology, and useful scientific researches, etc.

 In Pakistan, General Musharraf led a military coup in October 1999.

 (i) He overthrew a democratically elected government and declared himself the 'Chief Executiv of the country.

 (ii) Later, he changed his designation to that of a President and in 2002, held a referendum in tt country that granted him a five-year extension.

The government in Pakistan, under General Musharraf, cannot be called a democracy because:

(i) People may have elected their representatives to the national and provincial assemblies but those elected representatives are not really the rulers. They cannot take the final decisions.

 (ii) The power to take the final decision rests with the army officials and with General Musharraf and none of them are elected by the people. This happens in many dictatorships or monarchies. They formally have an elected parliament and government but the real power is with those who are not elected.

 (iii) Pakistani media, human right organisations and democracy activists said that referendum held by General Musharraf was based on malpractices and fraud

The merits of democracy are -
1) a democratic government is better form of government because it is more accountable form of government.
2) democracy improves the quality of decision making.
3) democracy enhances the dignity of citizens.
4) poor and least educated has the same status as the rich and educated.
5)democracy allows us to correct our own mistake.

Demerits are -
1) leaders keeps on changing this leads to instability 
2) democracy is all about political competition and power play there is no scope for morality 
3) so many people have to be consulted in a democracy that it leads to delays 
4) democracy leads to corruption for it is based on electoral competition 
5) ordinary people don't know what is good for them , they should not decide anything .

India totally lies north of Equator. So it is in the northern hemisphere. Whereas it totally lies to east of the Greenwich line(Prime Meridian),means it is in the northern and eastern hemisphere.

a state of great disturbance, confusion, or uncertainty.

When the National Assembly was busy at Versailles outlining the constitution, the rest of France fermented with turmoil in the following ways:

• The relentless winter hit the agricultural good badly which resulted in an increase of food products. The condition got worse when the cooks began hoarding supplies. As a result outraged women rushed into the stores.
• Besides this, the Monarch of France ordered the army to move into the city. There were rumors that the king can order army to open fire in the city. Therefore, thousands of people assembled to form an army.
• These people burst into government constructions and destroyed the Jail of Bastille on 14th July 1789.

The Palace of Versailles (/vɛərˈsaɪ, vɜːrˈsaɪ/ vair-SY, vur-SY;[1] French: Château de Versailles [ʃɑto d(ə) vɛʁsɑj] (About this soundlisten)) was the principal royal residence of France from 1682, under Louis XIV, until the start of the French Revolution in 1789, under Louis XVI. It is located in the department of Yvelines, in the region of Île-de-France, about 20 kilometres (12 miles) southwest of the centre of Paris.[2]

Napoleon Bonaparte was the ruler of France. He was crowned as the king of France in December 1804. He was known as the ‘son of the revolution’. He was an excellent general who recovered he lost territories. He Expanded his kingdoms through wars with Austria , Prussia and Russia between 1805-07. He passed the Napoleonic code in 1805 to simplify the administration. He was defeated very badly by the British General Arthur Wellesley at Waterloo in 1815. He was arrested and sent to the island of Saint Helena where he died in 1821.

the elected assembly formed in France in 1792 was called convention.

Role in France:
▪ it abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.

▪ heredity monarch Louis XVI and his wife was sentenced to death robespierre was elected president of the national convention.

▪ he followed the policy of severe control and punishment.

Monarchy is a form of government in which final authority rested with the King.

Autocracy includes absolute monarchy where a family or a group of families, also known as royalty, rule a country. The post of the monarch is inherited in an absolute monarchy. In this system, the monarch’s power is not restricted by any laws or legislation. 

The east west extent appears smaller than north south extent due to the fact that latitudes are equidistant from each other but distance between longitudes decreases as one moves from equator to poles.

1. India witnessed industrialisation after independence. The establishment of large industrial houses and an increasing number of industries has exerted tremendous pressure on the fresh water resources.

2. An increase in the number of urban centres with dense population has also exerted pressure on water resources. Many houses and societies have independent water-boring devices which have lowered the water table.

3. The deterioration of the quality of water due to industrial and domestic wastes has resulted in the scarcity of water in India.

4. The failure of people in realising the importance of rainwater harvesting has also made water a scarce commodity. Through the methods of rainwater harvesting, the demand of water can be met and groundwater can be recharged.

Water scarcity in most cases is caused by over- exploitation, excessive use and unequal access to water among different social groups. Water scarcity may be an outcome of large and growing population and consequent greater demands for water, and unequal access to it. Water shortages may be caused by climate change, such as altered weather patterns including droughts or floods, increased pollution, and increased human demand and overuse of water. A water crisis is a situation where the available potable, unpolluted water within a region is less than that region's demand.

Water shortages may be caused by climate change, such as altered weather patterns including droughts or floods, increased pollution, and increased human demand and overuse of water. A water crisis is a situation where the available potable, unpolluted water within a region is less than that region's demand. Water scarcity in most cases is caused by over- exploitation, excessive use and unequal access to water among different social groups. Water scarcity may be an outcome of large and growing population and consequent greater demands for water, and unequal access to it.

The main features of democracy are :

 (i) In a democracy, the final decision-making power must rest with those elected by the people

(ii) A democracy must be based on free and fair elections, where those currently in power have fair chance of losing.

 (iii) In a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote and each vote must have one value.

(iv) A democratic government rules within limits set by the constitutional law and citizen rights.

 (v) Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts. It enhances the dignity of the citizens.

Rule of law means every individual in a democracy should abide by the law, or a constitution which is made. It also includes that no person would violate the laws. Thus, rule of law governs a state in democracy.

Respect for rights mean that every citizen of a democratic state is provided with some important rights and it is a duty of everybody to respect each other’s rights and comply with them.

The Himalayan mountains are very useful for our country. Some of the significance of Himalayas is listed below :-

•  They form a natural wall along the northern borders, which is difficult to cross. They also protect us from the cold winds coming from North.
•  The rivers originating from the Himalayas carry fertile soil from the mountains to the plains. They also help in generating hydroelectricity.
•  These mountains check the rear bearing monsoon winds and thus cause enough rainfall in many parts of India.

Democracy may not have a single definition. A country becomes democratic when it follows all principles of democracy. These are:

• Democracy is a form of Government in which the rulers are elected by the people.
• In a democracy, all major decisions are made by the elected leaders.
• In a democracy, free and fair elections should be held regularly.
• Democracy should be based on the principle of one person, one vote and one value.
• There is Rule of Law and Respect for Rights