Socialism is defined as an economic system in which the means of production are owned not by private individuals but by the community in order that all may share more fairly in the wealth produced.

Socialism in Europe: Socialists were against private property and saw it as root of social evils.They had different visions of the future. Some believed in cooperatives, some demanded that governments must encourage cooperatives.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels added that industrial society was capitalist. Marx believed that a socialist society would free the workers from capitalism. This would be a communist society.

Support for Socialism  : Socialists formed an organization called ‘Second International’ to spread socialist ideas. Workers in Germany and England began forming associations to fight for better living conditions. They set up funds for members in distress, reduction of working hours and right to vote.

Main causes were:

Autocratic rule of Tsars: In 1914, the Russian emperor was Tsar Nicholas II. He fought a number of wars to expand his empire in the north and west in Europe. He had borne the expenditure of war by taxing the common people of Russia.
Conditions of peasants: Majority of the Russians were agriculturalists. Major part of the land was owned by nobles and clergy and these peasants worked as farmers on daily wages. They were paid less and worked more and sometimes under debt, they were not even paid wages.
Status of industries: Industry was found in pockets. Prominent industrial areas were St. Petersburg and Moscow. Craftsmen undertook much of the production, but large factories existed alongside crafts workshops. Foreign investment in industries increased with the extension of Russia’s railway network.
Conditions of workers in the industries: Most industries were owned by private
industrialists. Though the government supervised factories’ working hours and wages of the workers, but still rules were broken. Women workers were also paid less than men. Some workers formed associations to help members in times of unemployment and financial hardships. ,
Formation of socialist parties: All political parties were illegal in Russia before 1914. The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists, who respected Marxist ideas. But because of government policies, it had to operate secretly as an illegal organisation. It set up a newspaper, mobilised workers and organised strikes.

The collectivisation programme was started by Stalin. Under this programme, small landholdings of many peasants into one collective large farm. All large collectivised farms were cultivated by the farmers with the help of tools pooled together. The profits of the farms were shared among the cultivators. The Soviet Union implemented the collectivization (Russian: Коллективизация) of its agricultural sector between 1928 and 1940 during the ascension of Joseph Stalin. ... Planners regarded collectivization as the solution to the crisis of agricultural distribution (mainly in grain deliveries) that had developed from 1927.

The main features of Green Revolution in India were as follows
(i) High Yielding Varieties seeds promised to produce much greater amounts of grain on a single plant.
(ii) Use of advanced technology, chemical fertilisers, pesticides and well-developed system of irrigation.
(iii) These steps solved food crisis in India and made India self-sufficient in foodgrains.
(iv) This led to higher income growth and reduced poverty.
(v) This led to commercialisation of agriculture. In many areas, Green Revolution is associated with loss of soil fertility due to increased use of chemical fertilisers. Also, continuous use of groundwater for tubewell irrigation has reduced the water level below the ground.

Main effects of Nazi rule of Germany were:

• Germany became a dictatorial state. Opposition parties were crushed and trade unions were disbanded.
• Freedom of speech and expression wee denied to the people. Radio and newspapers were used to spread the idologies of the government.
• Jews were forced to live in ghettos and were exterminated.
• Hitler militarised Germany. The Rhine Valley was militarised.
• Women were expected to stay at home and look after the family. Women doctors, teachers and civil servants were forced to give up their careers. Even at the end of the war, women were never asked to serve in the armed forces.

In May of 1789, King Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates General to address France's financial crisis. ... When the king refused to give them more power, the Third Estate created its own group called the National Assembly. They began to meet on a regular basis and run the country without the help of the king. The National Assembly was the first revolutionary government of the French Revolution and existed from June 14th to July 9th in 1789. The National Assembly was created amidst the turmoil of the Estates-General that Louis XVI called in 1789 to deal with the looming economic crisis in France.

he Rowlatt Act was passed in March 1919. This act authorised the Government to imprison any person without trial & convict him in a court.

The Rowlatt Act implied:

(i) Arrest of a person without warrant.

(ii) In camera trial (trial in seclusion)

(iii) Restrictions on movements of individuals.

(iv) Suspension of the Right of Habeas Corpus.

The Act came like a sudden blow to the Indians who were expecting self-governance. Gandhiji appealed to the Viceroy to withhold his consent to such measures. However his appeal was ignored. He started 'Satyagraha' as a challenge to the government.

We can trace the origin of the following democratic rights we enjoy today to the french revolution:

• Right to Equality
• Right to Freedom
• Freedom of Speech and expression
• Right against exploitations
• Right to justice

(i)Louis XVI was from the Bourbon family of kings, who  ascended the throne of France In 1774.
(ii)He was 20 years old when he got married to the Austrian princess Marie Antoinette.
 

Debit card, credit card, ATM card (cash card) etc. are the forms of plastic money. These cards are considered as money because money is any thing which is accepted as the medium of exchange and this card can be used to make any transactions. 

Press in a democracy keeps a vigil on the freedom of the people.

To keep in check and remove a harsh, unjust government or to stand against any form of anarchy, dictatorship, and malpractice, press does a fulfilling the job. The press also acts as a voice of the people.

People raise issues against unfair practices or any regular matter and the press acts as a mediator between the government and the people, even among the people.
 

Liberals supports wanted a nation which tolerated all religions . the opposed the ant control power of dynastic rules and they did not believe in Universal adult franchise and they don't not want to give right to vote to women.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen  is one of the most important papers of the French Revolution. This paper explains a list of rights, such as freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and separation of powers

National Assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a constitution; the rest of France was seething with turmoil.

 • A severe winter had meant a bad harvest, the price of bread rose. Often bakers exploited the situation and hoarded supplies.

• After spending hours in long queues at the bakery, crowds of angry women stormed into the shops.

ance was seething with turmoil.

 • A severe winter had meant a bad harvest, the price of bread rose. Often bakers exploited the situation and hoarded supplies.

• After spending hours in long queues at the bakery, crowds of angry women stormed into the shops.

• At the same time, the king ordered troops to move into Paris. 

On the morning of 14 July 1789, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. Rumours spread that he would soon order the army to open fire upon the citizens.

Some 7,000 men and women gathered in front of the town hall and decided to form a peoples’ militia. They broke into a number of government buildings in search of arms.

Finally, a group of several hundred people marched towards the eastern part of the city and stormed the fortress-prison, the Bastille, where they hoped to find hoarded ammunition. In the armed fight, the commander of the Bastille was killed and seven prisoners released. Yet the Bastille was hated by all, because it stood for the despotic power of the king. The fortress was demolished and its stone fragments were sold in the markets to all those who wished to keep a souvenir of its destruction.

The French society was divided into 3 estates.
(i) The Clergy
(ii) The Nobility and
(iii) Businessmen, merchants, court officials, peasants, artisans, landless labour &
Servants
The members of the first two estates, that is, the clergy and the nobility, enjoyed certain privileges by birth. The most important of these was exemption from paying taxes to the state.

Peasants, belonging to the 3rd estate made up of 90 per cent of the population. Peasants were obliged to render services to the members of the 1st and 2nd estate and to work in their houses and fields and to serve in the army or to participate in building roads.

French revolution started in 1789. The series of events started by the middle class shook the upper classes. The people revolted against the cruel regime of monarchy. This revolution put forward the ideas of liberty, fraternity, and equality. The revolution began on 14th July, 1789 with the storming of the fortress-prison, the Bastille. The Bastille was hated by all, because it stood for the despotic power of the king. The fortress was demolished.

The East India company, which started initially as a trading company, had, by 1773, acquired territorial control over Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madras and Bombay. The Nawab of Awadh and Carnatic were their dependents. ... Mysore, under Haider Ali, became a source of danger to the rising British power in India. British rule in India was the worst thing which could happen to any country. The British Empire started its empire as pirates, it looted, destroyed and invaded several kingdoms within India and last battle was in 1857 when last Mughal emperor was deposed thus putting an end of 1000 years of Muslim rule in India.

Multiple Cropping :

• It is a traditional method of farming.
• It includes growing more than one crop on a piece of land during the same year.
• This method involves using of traditional seeds that requires less irrigation, wooden tools and equipments, ancient machinery, etc.
• Thus, the productivity of this method tends to remain low.

Modern Farming :

• It is a modern method of farming.
• It includes growing of one crop on a single piece of land at one point of time.
• This method involves using of high yield varieties (HVY) of seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides in large quantities, modern machinery, etc.
• Thus, the productivity of this method is high, however, it is not environment friendly.

Salvador Allende was the President of Chile, a country in South America. He was the founder and leader of the Socialist Party of Chile and led the Popular Unity coalition to victory in the presidential election in 1970.  

After Napoleon became the emperor of France in 1804, he set out to conquer neighbouring European countries, dispossessing dynasties and creating kingdoms where he placed members of his family. 

He introduced several laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weight and measures provided by the decimal system. 

Thus, he began to be viewed as a liberator in the beginning. But very soon the Napoleonic armies lost their trust in people. They came to be regarded as an invading force and in 1815, he was finally defeated at Waterloo.

Functional communication is the means by which an individual spontaneously and independently communicates his/her wants and needs and socializes with others. This communication can occur through a variety of forms, including speech, picture exchange, gestures, sign language and assistive devices. Functional communication refers to the most basic of communication skills. This type of communication gets one's basic wants and needs known, such as “I want that”, “I am hurt”, or “I need to use the bathroom”.

Based on their nature the economic activities can be classified into three sectors: primary sector, secondary sector and tertiary sector. 

1. The primary sector economic activities are agriculture and forestry, animal husbandry, fishing, poultry farming, and mining.
2. The secondary sector economic activities include quarrying or mining of stone slabs, and manufacturing of goods.
3. The tertiary sector economic activities include trade, transport, communication, banking, insurance, education, healthcare and tourism.

A river joined by its tributaries, at approximately right angles, develops a trellis pattern. A trellis drainage pattern develops where hard and soft rocks exist parallel to each other .

The picture of Trellis pattern is given below :