• Before the French Revolution in 1789, France had three colonies of the Caribbean - Martinique, Guadeloupe and San Domingo under its control. These places were major suppliers of sugar, coffee, indigo and tobacco.
•  The triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and America began in the 17^th century.
•  Merchants sailed from the French ports to the African coast where they bought Negroes, who are natives of Africa, from the local chieftains.
•  Port cities like Bordeaux and Nantes were flourishing economically because of the slave trade.
•  The National Convention voted to abolish slavery in all the French colonies on February 4, 1794.
•  Slavery was reintroduced in the French colonies by Napoleon Bonaparte. Slavery was finally abolished in 1848 by the French Second Republic.

Voting in the Estates General  had been conducted according to the principle that each estate had one vote. King Louis XVI was determined to continue the same practice. But members of the third estate demanded that voting now be conducted by the assembly as a whole, where each member would have one vote. When the king refused to grant their wish, the members of the third estate were dissapointed.

Castle or stately residence belonging to a king or a nobleman is known as chateau.

Radicals: They wanted a nation where the government should be elected by a majority of the population and some of them wanted women to participate in the same.

Conservatives: They were not ready for changes and wanted to discard the idea of changes. At one point they agreed to the upcoming changes but they wanted that at the same time the past should be respected

Elections in India are considered democratic because of the following reasons:

• Every citizen has been given a right to vote i.e. to choose their representative, without discrimination and their vote being considered equal.
• It offers the citizens and parties to content elections freely and fairly.
• It also provides the citizens a variety of choices to choose their representatives.
• It presents the citizens with a choice to choose their leader at regular intervals.

1. Right to Equality
2. Right to Freedom
3. Right against Exploitation
4. Right to Freedom of Religion
5. Cultural and Educational Rights
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies

Election is a mechanism by which people choose their representatives at regular intervals and change them if they wish to do so.

In an election the voters make many choices. They can choose the one who will malke laws for them.

They can choose who will form the government and take major decisions.

They can choose the one party whose policies will guide the government and lwa making.

So, Elections are considered essential for representative democracy.

a n s w e r :

Palk Strait

Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea , formed by Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar .

Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar.

Bloody Sunday was a massacre that took place on 22nd January 1905 in St Petersburg, wherein over 100 workers were killed and about 300 wounded when they took out a procession to present an appeal to Tsar. This procession was taken out to demand a reduction in the working day to eight hours, an increase in wages and improvement in working conditions. This was done because the prices of essential goods rose so fast that real wages were declined by 20%.

It was named as Bloody Sunday since it took place on Sunday.

The period from 1793 to 1794 is known as the Reign of Terror. Maximilian Robespierre sentenced to death all those persons who he considered as enemies of the republic, whether they were ex-noble, clergy, and members of any political parties; including Jacobins. The execution were completed after trial by revolutionary tribunal. At that time Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment.

The Reign of Terror (From 1793 to 1794)

The period from 1793 to 1794 is known as the Reign of Terror. Maximilian Robespierre sentenced to death all those persons who he considered as enemies of the republic, whether they were ex-noble, clergy, and members of any political parties; including Jacobins. The execution were completed after trial by revolutionary tribunal. At that time Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment.

Guillotine, a device, named after inventor Dr. Guillotin, was used to behead a person at that time. It consists of two poles and a blade. Guilty persons were beheaded using guillotine.

Government led by Robespierre issued many laws among which ceiling maximum wages and price and rationing were main. Foods, such as meat and bread were rationed. Peasants were forced to sell their grains on fixed price in cities. Citizens were forced to eat equality bread, white flour which was costlier was forbidden. Use of Citoyen and Citoyenne for men and women citizen started instead of the traditional Sir (Monsieur) and Madam (Madame). Churches were shut down and their buildings were converted into offices and barracks. Practice of equality was sought everywhere.

Because of forcible implementation of laws, even supporters of Robespierre started the demand for change. Finally, Robespierre arrested and guillotined in July 1794. Reign of Terror ended with the end of Robespierre.

Doon valley

Answer: Dehradun is located in the Doon valley on the foothills of the Himalayas nestled between the river Ganges on the east and the river Yamuna on the west the city is noted for its picturesque landscape and slightly milder climate and provides a gateway to the surrounding region

• After the French Revolution of 1789, the powers of the king were reduced and France became a constituional monarchy.
• Because the powers of King Louis XVI were  reduced, he  asked  for  help  from  the  Prussian  and Austrian monarchies. However, the revolutionaries in France formed a large army and declared a war against Prussia and Austria.
• The Jacobin Club in France was formed by the revolutionary forces of the country. It included small shopkeepers, watch makers, pastry cooks, printers, daily wage earners and servants.
• In 1792, when  the  supplies  of  bread  reduced,  the  Jacobins  along  with  people  stormed  the Tuileries Palace and imprisoned the royal family of France.
• This development led to the changes in the Constitution. Elections were held and everyone more than 21years of age was given the right to vote. Monarchy was abolished and France became a republic.

Democracy better than any other form of government because:

• A democratic government is a better government because it is a more accountable form of government.
• Democracy improves the quality of Decision Making
• Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts
• Democracy allows people to correct their own mistakes
• It is an accountable and legitimate form of the government
• It promotes equality among citizens
• It enhances the dignity of the citizens.

Subsistence Crisis is an extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered. Subsistence crises was caused in France due to

(i)   Rise in population.

(ii) Increase in demand of foodgrains.

(iii) Prices of bread rose rapidly.

(iv) Wages could not keep pace with rising prices.

(v)  Gap between rich and poor widened.

(vi) Draught or hail reduced the harvest. All these reaons led to subsistence crisis in France. Several subsistence crisis in France in the 18th century finally led ot the French Revoltion.

Louis XVI was the monarch of France who ruled from 1774 to 1792. He was unpopular among his subjects due to his policies that led to oppression of the working classes. He was executed in the course of the French Revolution in 1793.

The three methods adopted by Robert Mugabe's party ZANU-PF Party which violate the features of a democratically elected government are as :

1.  The party used its influence in rigging the election and coercion against voters.

2.  The party while in government used to control the press and media of the country.

3.  The powers of the President were increased and made him less accountable through various constitutional amendments.

4.  Public opinion and opposition was suppressed.

A common method used to measure poverty is based on the income or consumption levels. A person is considered poor if his or her income or consumption level falls below a given “minimum level” necessary to fulfill basic needs. While determining the poverty line in India, a minimum level of food requirement, clothing, footwear, fuel and light, educational and medical requirement etc. are determined for subsistence. These physical quantities are multiplied by their prices in rupees. The resent formula for food requirement while estimating the poverty line is based on the desired calorie requirement.

As per 2000 figures; a family of five which is earning less than Rs. 1,640 per month is considered to be living below the poverty line. This figure is Rs. 2,270 per month for the urban area.The expected calorie intake has been fixed at 2400 calories per person in rural areas and 2100 calories in urban areas. A person consuming less than this amount is considered to be living below the poverty line.

(i) The Parliament is the final authority for making laws in any Country. In India, it makes laws on the subjects of Union List, Concurrent List and in certain cases on State List.
(ii) The Parliament can pass a resolution of no-confidence against the ministry and ask it to resign. Those who run the government can take decisions only so long as they enjoy support of the Parliament.
(iii) The Parliament controls all the money that government has. The governmental budget is passed in the Parliament.
(iv) The Parliament is the highest forum of discussion and debate on public issues and national policies.
(v) The Parliament can seek information from and ask questions to the government and its ministers on any matter.
(vi) The Parliament elects President, Vice-President, Speaker, Deputy Speaker, Vice-Chairman of Rajya Sabha, etc. It can also remove President, Vice¬President, Judges of the Supreme Court and High . Courts by passing a resolution of impeachment against them.

Parliament is a bicameral legislature composed of the President of India and the two houses: the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). The President in his role as head of legislature has full powers to summon and prorogue either house of Parliament or to dissolve Lok Sabha.

Features of parliament

• Nominal or Titular Head.
• Collective Responsibility and Individual Responsibility.
• Political Homogeneity.
• Harmony between Executive and Legislature.
• Rigidity of Party Discipline.