India is divided into six physiographic divisions on basis of the varied physiographic features: units as follows: Northern and North-eastern Mountain; Northern Plain; Peninsular Plateau; Indian Desert; Coastal Plains; and Islands. Physiographic regions of the world are a means of defining the Earth's landforms into distinct regions, based upon the classic three-tiered approach by Nevin M. Fenneman in 1916, that separates landforms into physiographic divisions, physiographic provinces, and physiographic sections.

Importance of the Preamble can be stated as follows :

1. The Preamble contains the philosophy on which the entire Constitution has been built. It provides a standard to examine and evaluates any law and action of government to find out whether it is good or bad. Hence, it is the soul of the Constitution.

2. The Preamble shows the way the government ought to run. It declares India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular and democratic republic .

3. It envisages justice-social, economic and political-for all its citizens. It seeks to give the citizens all types of freedoms—freedom of thought and expression, freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights etc.

4. The Preamble mentions people as the source of the Constitution. It seeks to provide equality of status and opportunity to all individuals and thus promotes a sense of brotherhood among all citizens

NREGA(National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005)is an Indian labour law and social security measure that aims to guarantee the 'right to work'.The act was first proposed in 1991 by Narasimha Rao.  In 2006, it was finally accepted in the parliament and commenced implementation in 200 districts of India. 
It aims to enhance livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of wage employment in a financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.

A subcontinent is part of a larger continent, made up of a number of countries that form a large mass of land. 

The countries forming the Indian Subcontinent are Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bhutan.

(i) The philosophers played an important role in the French Revolution. They inspired the common mass of France with their revolutionary ideas and prepared them to fight against injustices. 
(ii) They did not believe in the doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch. In his Two Treatises of Government John Locke refuted this doctrine strongly. 
(iii) Rousseau carried the idea forward proposing a form of government based on a social contract between people and their representatives. 
(iv) In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government between the legislative, the executive and the judiciary. 
(v) The ideas of these philosophers were discussed intensively in salons and coffee-houses and spread among people through books and newspapers. These were frequently read aloud in groups for the benefit of those who were illiterate. Thus, the philosophers contributed a lot in bringing of the French Revolution.

Three features of free and fair electoral competition are:
1) Free and Fair electoral competition provides an opportunity of removing bad government and selecting the best government.
2) Parties or Candidates are free to contest elections.
3) Every person has the right to choose the candidate of his/her own choice that could make the government and could make laws and take decisions for them.

Japan became a developed country despite being poor in natural resources:

(i) They have invested in human resources.

(ii) They import the required resources for their industries.

(iii) Efficiency of the people has made the country rich.

(iv) The latest technology has helped in the development.

(v) They have invested in the field of health and education.

EL Nino The periodic development of warm ocean current along the coast of Peru as a temporary replacement of the cold Peruvian current, is called EL-Nino.
Features of EL Nino
(i) The presence of the EL-Nino leads to an increase in sea-surface temperatures.
(ii) It weakens the trade winds in the regions and causes heavy rainfall, floods or droughts in different regions of the world.

• A vicious cycle is one which has a negative impact or effect whereas a virtuous cycle is the one which has a positive effect/impact.
• There is a atmosphere of helplessness in a vicious cycle where as there is an atmosphere of encouragement in virtuous cycle.
• The likelihood of employment decreases in vicious cycle whereas in virtuous cycle the likelihood of employment increases.

The primary cause of monsoons is the difference between annual temperature trends over land and sea. The apparent position of the Sun with reference to the Earth oscillates from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn. Thus the low pressure region created by solar heating also changes latitude. A normal sea breeze changes daily, with the day-to-night change of land temperature as the sun rises and sets; monsoons change seasonally. Figure A compares seasonal shifts in the monsoon circulation. Most of the time during the summer, the land is warmer than the ocean.

The October Revolution was the second and the last major part of the Russian Revolution of 1917. It is also known as the Bolshevik Revolution. This Military Revolution Committee was led by Trotsky and they were able to garner the support of Petrograd Garrison and Kronstadt sailors. The Prime Minister ordered the arrest of Bolshevik leaders in October, this led to an armed uprising in Petrograd on 25th October 1917. The revolution was led by the Bolsheviks who occupied the government buildings on 25th October. The following day Winter Palace was captured. It was the seat of the Provisional Government which was established after overthrowing Tsars. Bolsheviks later went on to become the Communist Party of Soviet Union. The new Government was led by Vladimir Lenin.

The reasons behind the October Revolution are given below.

1. Russia was one of the most impoverished countries in Europe. 
2. Huge population landless agricultural laborers
3. Rise in number of poor and exploited industrial workers.
4. Communists wanted to create an Industrialized Soviet Union and usher in economic and social development.

• The point of intersection of axis is called origin.
•  The Origin has zero distance from both x-axis and y-axis so that its abscissa and ordinate both are zero. So the coordinate of the origin is (0, 0)

Federal law is the body of law created by the federal government of a country. A federal government is formed when a group of political units, such as states or provinces join together in a federation, delegating their individual sovereignty and many powers to the central government while retaining or reserving other limited powers. As a result, two or more levels of government exist within an established geographic territory. The body of law of the common central government is the federal law.

Examples of federal governments include those of Australia, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Malaysia, Pakistan, Republic of India, Russia, the former Soviet Union and the United States.

There are various steps taken by the government in order to protect the flora as well as the fauna of the country.

1)For Prevention of illegal trade and haunting of the wildlife " wildlife crime control bureau is established.
2) Government ban the hunting of endangered species  of the animals .
3) Central government also empowered the CBI in order to deal with the illegal hunters and men involving in it.
4) Government plans to stop the deforestation and plans for plantation of new trees.
5) The green belt programs also going in order to plant the plants in the cities.
6) The endangered fauna species are being kept at botanical gardens .
7) Amendment in previous existing wildlife act  in also a good step.

• Elections are a democratic way of selecting representatives.
• They ensure that the representatives rule as per the wishes of the people.
• Elections help voters to choose representatives who will make laws for them, form the government and take major decisions.
• The voters can choose the party whose policies will guide the government and law making.
• Thus election is a mechanism by which people can choose their representatives at regular intervals and change them if they wish to.

The circumstances leading to the outbreak of revolutionary protest in France were:

Social Inequality: French society in the eighteenth century was divided into three estates namely The Clergy, The nobility and third estates which comprise peasants, officials and small business. It was only third estates that pay taxes. Clergy and nobility were exempt from taxes.

Subsistence Crisis: The population of France also increased from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789. Food grains were now in great demand. Price of bread shot up. Wages did not keep pace with rising prices. This led to subsistence crisis.

Economic Problems: Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France. France had a debt of more than 2 billion livres. To meet its regular expenses, such as the cost of maintaining an army, the court, running government offices or universities, the state was forced to increase taxes.

Strong Middle Class: The middle class emerged educated and wealthy during the eighteenth century. They believed that no group in society should be given privileges by birth. Ideas of equality and freedom were put forward by philosophers. The ideas of these philosophers were discussed intensively in salons and coffee houses and spread among people.

Immediate Causes: On 5 may, 1789, Louis XVI called together an assembly of Estates General to pass proposals for new taxes. Third estates protested against this proposal but as each estate have one vote, the king rejected this appeal. They walked out of the assembly.

Nicholas II was the last Czar (King) of Russia of the Romanov Dynasty. He and his family were executed by the Bolsheviks, bringing an end to the three-century-old Romanov dynasty.

The regime of tsar declined in 1917 due to the following reasons— 

(a) Miserable Condition of the Workers (i) The industrial workers in Russia got very low wages. (ii) They had very long working hours, sometimes upto 15 hours. (iii) A large number of workers were unemployed, (iv) The workers demanded higher wages and reduction in working hours but their demands were not met and they became dissatisfied. 

(b) Miserable Condition of Peasants (i) Most of the peasants were landless and very poor. (ii) They also had to do free labour for the landlords. (iii) The small farmers who possessed land had to pay high land revenue, leaving very less for them to survive on. (iv) The landless farmers demanded that the land of the nobles should be given to them. (v) They wanted reduction of land revenue. (vi) However, their demands were not fulfilled and they too became dissatisfied. 

(c) Russia's Defeat in the First World War (i) Initially, the people rallied around Tsar Nicholas II; however Russian armies suffered defeats and a large number of soldiers were killed in the war. (ii) The Russian population wanted to withdraw from the war, but the Tsar was not willing to do so. This turned the Russian people against him and encouraged them to revolt.

 (d) Role of Philosophers like Karl Marx Karl Marx put forward the idea that the capitalists were responsible for the misery of the workers and that the condition of workers could only improve if the land and the industries were controlled by the society. He inspired the workers to oppose the landlords and the capitalists. 

(e) Rasputin's Role The people were also against the policies of the monk named Rasputin.  

Women, elderly people and female infants are the poorest of the poor is society.      Women, elderly people and the girl child are systematically denied equal access to the resources available in the family. That is why they and considered the poorest of the poor.