Effect on political life

(i) Unfortunately, the infant Weimer Republic was made to pay for the sins of the old empire.

(ii) The republic was financially crippled and was forced to pay war compensation

(i) Although Louis XVI signed the Constitution of 1791, he entered into secret negotiations with the King of Prussia. Rulers of other neighbouring countries too were worried by the developments in France and made plans to send troops to suppress the events that had been taking place since the summer of 1789.
(ii) But before this could happen, the National Assembly declared war against Prussia and Austria in 1792. Thousands of volunteers came from the provinces to join the army. They saw this as a war of the people against the king and aristocrats all over Europe.
(iii) The revolutionary war brought losses and economic difficulties to the people. Despite that large sections of the population were convinced that the revolution had to be carried further, as the Constitution of 1791 gave political rights only to the richer sections of society.
(iv) As a result, political clubs emerged. The most successful of these clubs was that of the Jacobins, who belonged to the less prosperous sections of society. Their leader was Maximillian Robespierre.
(v) In the summer of 1792 the Jacobins planned an insurrection of a large number of Parisians who were angered by the short supplies and high prices of food.
(vi) On August 10 they stormed the palace of the Tuileries, killed the king's guards and held the king himself as a hostage for several hours. Later the Assembly voted to imprison the royal family.
(vii) Elections were held. The newly elected assembly, called the Convention, abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic on 21 September, 1792.
(viii) Louis XVI was executed publicly at Place de la Concorde. The queen Marie Antoinette met with the same fate shortly after.

A democracy Works well when the political institutions, like the: Prime Minister and the Cabinet,: the Civil Servants, the Supreme Court, etc., perform functions assigned to them.
The need for these political institutions are
(i) To take decisions Countries need political institutions to take decisions regarding the welfare of the people. Institutions formulate various policies and welfare schemes.
(ii) To implement the decisions The decisions which have been taken care pf are to be implemented.
So, countries need institutions to implement the decisions.
(iii) To solve the disputes Institutions are needed to solve the disputes between various institutions.
(iv) To take right decisions Institutions are also needed to help the government to take the right decisions. They determine what is wrong, and what is right.

Vladimir Ilyich ​Ulyanov, better known as Lenin, was a Russian communist revolutionary and politician. He served as the first leader of the Russian Soviet Socialist Republic after its formation in the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Lenin played a very important role in the Russian Revolution of 1917.

1.He was the leader of the Bolsheviks who conducted the Revolution. 
2. Under his leadership, the revolutionary government introduced radical land reforms and transformed the country into a socialist state.
3. He led the Bolsheviks to victory in the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922.
4. He introduced the New Economic Policy which was a mixed economic system with a leading role for the state. It started the process of industrialisation and recovery from the Civil War.
5. In 1922, just before Lenin's death, the Russia joined other terrirtories of the former Tsar's empire to form the Soviet Union.

Protected forests 

1.These are protected from any further depletion.

2. Almost 1 /3rd of the total forest area of India is called as the protected forest.

3.These are controlled by the government.

4. The forests of Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan fall under this category.

Apartheid was an institutional discrimination on the basis of race and color. It was practiced in South Africa ( late 1940s-1990s) where the authoritarian political culture was based on white supremacy and oppression of Non-European blacks.

Under the apartheid system, the Non-Europeans were discriminated socially, politically and economically for the benefit of European white minority in South Africa.

Western Ghats receive more rainfall than the Eastern Ghats because
(i) Western Ghats receive rainfall from the Arabian Sea monsoon winds. As these winds blow over warm oceans, they bring abundant moisture.
(ii) The Western Ghats do not allow the winds to cross over without shedding their moisture on the Western slopes.
(iii) When these winds reach the Eastern Ghat, they are almost dry. .
(iv) Another branch of South-West monsoon i.e. the’ Bay of Bengal branch, moves parallel to the Eastern Ghats. In this way, this region is located in an unfavourable position with reference to the monsoon winds.

Waste Land rules

Answer: This law was brought to take control of the land which was not under cultivation. The surplus land could be used to increase the area under cultivation and also to increase land revenue. This Rule shrunk the pastureland which was earlier available.

Five causes of deforestation in India during the British rule were:

a. The British considered forests as wildernesses which must be brought under cultivation to enhance the income of the state. Thus, large tracts of forest lands were cleared for cultivating land.

b. Due to high demand, forests in Britain were dissapearing. This created a problem for British Royal navy as wood as required to build ships. The British started exploring Indian forests on a massive scale.

c. Forests were destroyed to supply sleepers for railways and to further expand areas under railways.

d. The colonial government thought forests as unproductive and hence cleared them for building dams and layingdown cities.

e. Cash crops were expected to bring huge revenues. So large areas of natural forests were cleared to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantations. 

In the colonial period, cultivation expanded rapidly for a variety of reasons of which two are given below:
(i) British directly encouraged the production of commercial crops like jute, sugar, wheat, and cotton. The demand for these crops increased in 19th century Europe where foodgrains were needed to feed the growing urban population and raw materials were required for industrial production.
(ii) In the early 19th century the colonial state thought that forests were unproductive. They were considered to be wilderness that had to be brought under cultivation so that the land could yield agricultural products and revenue and enhance the income of the state.

The lives of the villagers were affected by the forest laws:

• Now the villagers were deprived of their customary practices like hunting, cutting, grazing their cattle, collecting fruits, etc.
• One of the major impacts was on the practice of shifting cultivations or swidden agriculture.
• People were now forced to steal wood from the forests and if they were caught, they were at the mercy of the forest guards who would take bribes from them.
• Women who collected fuel woods were especially worried.
• It was common for police, constables and forest guards to harass people by demanding free food from them.

Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty which brought World War I to an end. The Treaty ended the war  between Germany and the Allied Powers.  It was signed on 28 June 1919 in Versailles. There was dissatisfaction in Italy and Germany with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Several harsh restrictions were imposed on Germany. She had to a huge war indemnity and her mineral rich areas of Saar and Rhineland was occupied by France. All German colonies in Asia and Africa were forcefully captured. Her military power was also reduced.

It is said that the hearsh terms of the treaty of Versailles sowed the seeds of the Second World War.

THE AGE OF SOCIAL CHANGE

The French Revolution opened up the possibility of creating a dramatic change in the way in which society was structured. Not everyone in Europe, however, wanted a complete transformation. Some were ‘conservatives’, while others were ‘liberals’ or ‘radicals’

Liberals: Wanted a nation which tolerated all religions. They were against the uncontrolled power of the dynastic rulers.They wanted rights for individuals.They argued for an elected parliamentary government, subject to laws interpreted by a well trained judiciary that was independent of rulers and officials. They were not democrats because they did not believe in universal adult franchise..

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Power sharing is a term used to describe a system of governance in which all major segments of society are provided a permanent share of power; this system is often contrasted with government vs. opposition systems in which ruling coalitions rotate among various social groups over time.

Power-sharing is a vital ingredient of any constitution. Power-sharing ensures that there is an optimum balance between different sections in the society. Each and every state should have some form of power-sharing. The chances of opportunity to every citizen increases. Power-sharing has its own value in a democracy. This ensures the stability of political order.

The peace treaty at Versailles with the Allies was considered as harsh and humiliating because of the following reasons:

• Germany lost its overseas colonies, 1/10th of its population, 13% of its territories, 75% of its iron and 26% of its coal to France, Poland, Denmark and Lithuania.

• The Allied Powers demilitarized Germany to weaken its power.

• The War Guilt Clause held Germany responsible for the war and damages the Allied countries suffered and strained them to pay £6 billion compensation.

• The armies of Allied Powers occupied the resource-rich Rhineland for most of the 1920s.

Poverty is looked through social indicators like:

• Illiteracy level
• Lack of general resistance due to malnutrition
• Lack of access to health care
• Lack of opportunities
• Lack of access to safe drinking water
• Lack of access to safe sanitation facilities.

Answered By

‘People as a resource’ is a term that means how the population can be an asset and not a liability. It a way of referring to the working class of society in terms of their existing productive skills and abilities. The population becomes human capital when an investment is done in the form of education and training. Education and health also help human beings to be an asset to the economy. Thus, people as a resource refers to the working population that results in the development of society.

Subsistence Crisis: It is an extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered. The demand for foodgrains was increased as population had increased in France from 23 million to 28 million. Production of grains could not keep pace with the demand. So the price of bread, which was the staple diet of the majority, rose rapidly. Most workers were employed as labourers in workshops whose owner fixed their wages. But wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. So the gap between the poor and the rich widened. Things became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest. This led to subsistence crisis, something that occurred frequently in France during the Old Regime.

1. Hitler was born in Austria in 1889. He earned many medals for bravery in the First World War.
2. The German defeat horrified him. The Treaty of Versailles made him furious.
3. He joined the German Workers Party and renamed it National Socialist German Workers’ Party. This later came to be known as the Nazi Party.
4. Nazism became a mass movement only during the Great Depression.
5. The Nazi propaganda stirred hopes of a better future. Hitler was a powerful and effective speaker.
6. He promised the people a strong nation where all would get employment.
7. His politics included the significant rituals and spectacle in mass mobilization.
8. Nazi propaganda skillfully projected Hitler as a messiah, a saviour.
9.  Hitler achieved the highest position in the cabinet of ministries on 30 January 1933. Hitler now set out to dismantle the structures of democratic rule.
10. The Fire Decree of 28 February 1933 suspended civic rights like freedom of speech, press and assembly

1. The major cause is due to the activities of humans like cutting down large numbers of trees, pollution, overhunting, etc.

2. It is also because of over population. As the population is increasing very rapidly, people cut the trees in the forests to build houses, factories, industries, etc. This leads to the destruction of the habitat of the species and that is why many of the species gets extinct.

3. Natural disasters like forest fire, volcano eruptions are also responsible for the extinction of species.