During this period, paper became cheaper and widely available. This resulted in a dramatic increase in the variety of textual records between 700 to 1750 CE. People started using paper to write holy texts, chronicles of rulers, letters and teachings of saints, petitions and judicial records and for registers of accounts and taxes.

During this period, paper became cheaper and widely available. This resulted in a dramatic increase in the variety of textual records between 700 to 1750 CE. People started using paper to write holy texts, chronicles of rulers, letters and teachings of saints, petitions and judicial records and for registers of accounts and taxes.

• In parasitic mode of nutrition, plants depend on other plants or animals for their nourishment.
• Such dependent plants are called as parasites and the ones on which parasites depend are called as hosts. 
• A parasite plant climbs on the host plant from which they get all the food.
• The host does not get any benefit from the parasite.
• Some examples of parasites are Cuscuta (akash-bel), Cassytha (amar-bel), hookworms, tapeworms, leeches, etc.

1.  The archaeological sources include material things like artifacts, buildings, inscriptions, coins etc while as literary sources include written literature in the form of books, biographies etc.

2.  Archaeological sources are primary sources (first hand evidence) while as literary sources are both primary and secondary source.

3. Archaeological sources cover more than 99% of history of mankind while as literary sources less than 1%. Archaeological sources are only source of our pre-history which is 99% time period of mankind.

4. Archaeological sources present true picture of the event as they are without any bias. While as literary sources are mostly biased and exaggerated.

• The Ten percent law for the transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next was introduced by Lindeman (1942). 
• According to this law, during the transfer of energy from organic food from one trophic level to the next, only about ten percent of the energy from organic matter is stored as flesh. 
• The remaining is lost during transfer, broken down in respiration, or lost to incomplete digestion by higher trophic levels.

The second law of thermodynamics states that any spontaneously occurring process will always lead to an escalation in the entropy (S) of the universe. In simple words, the law explains that an isolated system’s entropy will never decrease over time.

The electromagnetic spectrum is a range of frequencies, wavelengths and photon energies covering frequencies from below 1 hertz to above 10²⁵ Hz corresponding to wavelengths which are a few kilometres to a fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus in the spectrum of electromagnetic waves. Generally, in a vacuum electromagnetic waves tend to travel at speeds which is similar to that of light. However, they do so at a wide range of wavelengths, frequencies, and photon energies.

Par value, also known as nominal value, is the face value of a bond or the stock value stated in the corporate charter.

When the plants take sunlight from sun then they made food with the help of sunlight , chlorophyll and water through the process of photosynthesis. So, we can conclude that all energy of sun which is trapped by plants ultimately returns to the environment.
1 percent of solar energy in terrestrial habitats and 0.2% in aquatic habitat is trapped and utilized by plants. 1% of solar energy is trapped and used by plants. It's given directly in the textbook along with the percentage of energy passed on from each tropic level (10%).

Energy enters an ecosystem from external sources and moves throughout its components. For instance, energy from the sun flows through plants, microorganisms, and animals. Energy cycles in an ecosystem end with decomposition, and then the process begins anew.

by the food web pathways previously presented, which decompose organic matter into inorganic nutrients. Nutrient cycles occur within ecosystems. Nutrient cycles that we will examine in this section include water, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen cycles.

Energy transformation is when energy changes from one form to another – like in a hydroelectric dam that transforms the kinetic energy of water into electrical energy. While energy can be transferred or transformed, the total amount of energy does not change – this is called energy conservation.

In the natural sciences an open system is one whose border is permeable to both energy and mass. By contrast, a closed system is permeable to energy but not to matter. An open system is defined as a “system in exchange of matter with its environment, presenting import and export, building-up and breaking-down of its material components.” Closed systems, on the other hand, are held to be isolated from their environment.

Energy captured from sunlight drives the production of energy-rich organic compounds during the process of photosynthesis. These organic compounds create biomass. Gross productivity is a measure of the total energy captured. Energy dynamics in a biotic community is fundamental to understanding ecological interactions.

• During the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide enters through the stomata, water is absorbed by the root hairs from the soil and is carried to the leaves through the xylem vessels. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy from the sun to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
• The hydrogen from water molecules and carbon dioxide absorbed from the air are used in the production of glucose. Furthermore, oxygen is liberated out into the atmosphere through the leaves as a waste product.
• Glucose is a source of food for plants that provide energy for growth and development, while the rest is stored in the roots, leaves, and fruits for their later use.
• Pigments are other fundamental cellular components of photosynthesis. They are the molecules that impart colour and they absorb light at some specific wavelength and reflect back the unabsorbed light. All green plants mainly contain chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids which are present in the thylakoids of chloroplasts. It is primarily used to capture light energy. Chlorophyll-a is the main pigment.

Lymph flows in one direction only (towards the heart). Blood is pumped by the heart to all parts of the body. Lymph is not pumped.