The number and variety of textual records increased dramatically during the medieval period than ancient period. They slowly displaced other types of available information. Through this period paper gradually became cheaper and more widely available. People used it to write holy texts, chronicles of rulers, letters and teachings of saints, petitions and judicial records, and for registers of accounts and taxes. Manuscripts were collected by wealthy people, rulers, monasteries and temples. They were placed in libraries and archives These manuscripts archives and documents provide a lot of detailed information to historians but they are also difficult to use.

The historians face several difficulties in using manuscripts. There was no printing press in those days so scribes copied manuscripts by hand. Manuscript copying is not an easy job. As scribes copied manuscripts, they also introduced small changes—a word here, a sentence there. These small differences grew over centuries of copying until manuscripts of the same text became substantially different from one another. This is a serious problem because we rarely find the original manuscript of the author today. We are totally dependent upon the copies made by later scribes. As a result historians have to read different manuscript versions of the same text to guess what the author had originally written.  

Rajaraja I was the most powerful Chola ruler. He became king in 985 and expanded control over most of these areas. He was well known for the reorganization of the administration of his empire

Major landforms formed by a river in plains are as follows:

1. Meanders: When the river enters the plain, it losses it swiftness and the valley widens due to the continuos erosion of banks of the river. The river makes several bends along its flow and these bends and loops are termed as meanders.

2. Ox-bow lakes: As a result of continuos flow of the river, in the long run, the bends and loops come closer and with time, the river cuts across the loops separating them from the mainstream. These circular loops that get separated from the mainstream are termed as ox-bow lakes.

3. Flood plains: During floods, rivers bring with them a huge amount of silt and alluvium that gets deposited along the bank of rivers raising their height and forming fertile flood plains.

4. Natural levees​: Long ridges with relatively lesser height formed at the bank of rivers are termed as natural levees due to the coarse material deposited by the river.

5. Sand bars: These are the landforms formed inside the river at the mouth by deposition of large volume of sand, pebbles, alluvium and water.

6. Distributaries: Due to excessive load of water and silt at the mouth of river, the mainstream gets divided into several small channels of water known as distributaries.

7. Deltas: When soil  gets deposited between the distributaries in a triangular form, it is referred to as Delta. Deltas are very fertile lands found at the mouth of the river. For example, the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta is a very fertile delta found in West Bengal. 

•  The military commanders who were given land grants were called Iqtadars or Muqtis. 
• The Khaljis and the Tughlaqs appointed local commanders called 'iqtadar' or' muqti', and the lands given to them to manage were called 'iqtas'.
• The 'iqtadars' led military campaigns, maintained law and order, collected taxes, and paid their soldiers. And their positions were not inheritable.

• Being able to extract oxygen from water (instead of air)
• Being able to withstand the current (depending on the kind of river)
• Being able to find food without relying too much on eye sight (in case the river is muddy).

Most adaptation would be general for aquatic life. The one that is specific for rivers is handling the current.

Physical environment

• The physical environment includes all non- living things.
• For example= land, water and air.
• It provides raw material.

Biological Environment

• the Biological environment includes all living things.
• For example plants, animals and human beings.
• It modified raw material.

Indentured labour was a system of bonded labour that was instituted following the abolition of slavery. Indentured labour were recruited to work on sugar, cotton and tea plantations, and rail construction projects in British colonies in West Indies, Africa and South East Asia. An indentured servant or indentured laborer is an employee (indenturee) within a system of unfree labor who is bound by a signed or forced contract (indenture) to work without pay for the owner of the indenture for a period of time. The contract often lets the employer sell the labor of an indenturee to a third party.

Inscriptions and coins have served as  major sources of history in mediaeval India. It is through these inscriptions and coins we could collect some information about various activities and events of the past.Inscriptions help us to know the language prevalent at different places at different time.It is through the study of inscriptions that we came to know about the various political, administrative and religious activities of the past. For example, The pillars of Samudragupta, the edicts of Ashoka etc are examples of inscriptions that throws light on the administration of that time.Some inscriptions discovered the languages used during that period such as Pali, Brahmi, Sanskrit etc.

Coins also help us to know about the economic conditions prevalent at that time.Coins also contained he information about the year of accession, the foreign relations etc.For example, i is through coins that information about the Sultanate and Mughal period came to the focus.The coins of Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq has released information about his rule.

Democracy, meaning "rule of the people", is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, such as a parliament. Consensus democracy – rule based on consensus rather than traditional majority rule. Constitutional democracy – governed by a constitution. Deliberative democracy – in which authentic deliberation, not only voting, is central to legitimate decision making.

Alauddin died on the night of 4 January 1316. Barani claims that according to "some people", Kafur murdered him. Towards the end of the night, Kafur brought the body of Alauddin from the Siri Place and had it buried in Alauddin's mausoleum (which had already been built before Alauddin's death). Alauddin's former bodyguards (paiks) disapproved of Kafur's actions against the family of their deceased master. Led by Mubashshir, Bashir, Saleh, and Munir, these bodyguards decided to kill Kafur. When Kafur became suspicious of a conspiracy against him, he summoned Mubashshir to his room.

The meaning of the term ‘Hindustan’ has eventually changed over the past centuries. Today, the term ‘Hindustan’ is referred to denote India. But during the 13th century, the term was used by Minhaj-i-Siraj – a chronicler (in a political sense) of lands that belonged to the Delhi Sultan. During the 14th century, the term ‘Hind’ was used by Amir Khusrau to refer to the culture and people of the Indus river. Whereas, during the early 16th century, Babar used the term ‘Hindustan’ to describe the culture, geography and fauna of the inhabitants of the sub-continent.

One of the eminent historians of Akbar’s court was Abul Fazal, who wrote Ain-i-Akbari, gives information about the legal and revenue-systems of Akbar’s administration. 

Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak who was one of the nine jewels in Akbar's court.

His functions were to design and construct naval boats and to recruit skilled sea-men.

Ananga Pala from the Tomara dynasty of Rajputs first established his capital at Delhi.

Explanation: 

After the decline of the Pratiharas, the Tomaras established their dynasty around Delhi by the 10^th century. Ananga Pala, the founder of the Tomara dynasty first established his capital at Delhi in 736 CE. They were however followed by the Chauhans or Chahamanas.

The word medieval has its origins in the Latin term medium aevum ("middle age") and first came into use in the 19th century, although the idea of a middle age had been around for several hundred years.

As the power and wealth of the samantas increased, they declared themselves to be mahasamanta or maha-mandaleshwara (meaning the great lord of the ‘circle’ or the region). In some cases, they even asserted their independence over the overlords. One such instance was that of Rashtrakutas in the Deccan.

During this period, several social and economic differences emerged among the people, which led to the introduction of Jatis or sub-castes, where people were ranked on the basis of their occupations and backgrounds. The affairs of jatis were regulated by an assembly of elders known as the jati panchayat in some areas. The jatis were required to follow the rules of their villages, which were governed by a chieftain.

The main arguments were in the case of Sterlite were "What was the need for the govt to send the police and kill 13 innocent people.

                                    (OR)

The main arguments were in the case of Cauvery were "Why is the Govt of karnataka refuse to supply water in tamil nadu

Following are the three layers of the Earth:

1. Crust: It is the outermost layer of the Earth's surface. It extends from 5 to 8 kilometres beneath the oceans and about 35 kilometres beneath the continental masses.
2. Mantle: It is the layer that lies below the crust. The thickness of mantle is 2,900 kilometres.
3. Core: It is the innermost layer of the Earth  and is 3,500-kilometres thick.

According to a Sanskrit Prashasti Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Balban's empire was stretched from Bengal (Gauda) in the east to Ghazni (Gajjana) in Afghanistan in the west. It also included all of south India (Dravida). During his reign, Balban ruled with an iron fist. He broke up the 'Chahalgani', a group of the forty most important nobles in the court. Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1287 AD) sultan of Delhi. He brought back peace and order in the state and restored the power and prestige of the sultan after a period of thirty years of near anarchy since the days of iltutmish (d 1236).