Discuss how the changes in forest …

(i)Shifting Cultivators: Colonial rulers decided to ban shifting cultivation as it made harder for the government to calculate taxes. As a result, a number of communities, who used to do shifting cultivation, were forcibly displaced from their homes in the forests. Some had to change occupations, while some resisted through large and small rebellions.

(ii)Nomadic and pastoralist communities: The worst suffers were nomadic and pastroralist communities. The British Government declared some forests as reserved, some others as protected. This limited their access to the forest. They could not graze their herds in forest and they could not collect forest produce like, fruits, roots and fuel and timber. For medicines they could not collect the herbs. They had to give up hunting and fishing in the forest areas.

(iii)Nomadic and pastoralist communities: The colonial rule affected the timber trading in many ways. First the British Government enacted rules for forest reservation. Under this rule, people were not allowed to cut trees and collect timber from forest. Secondly, by the early 19th century, oak forests in England were disappearing. This created a problem of timber supply for Royal Navy. Third, now the people were not allowed to get other forest products like ivory, silk, coconuts, bamboo, spices, resins, gum etc. for trading. Fourthly, only a few European trading firms were given the right to trade in the forest products of particular areas. General firms had to suffer owing to this measure.

(iv)Plantation owners: The concept of plantation agriculture emerged in India with the colonial rule. The owners of the plantation fields were mostly Europeans. Therefore, rules and regulations regarding the plantation were made by keeping in view the interest of the Europeans.

Large areas of natural forests were also cleared to make way for tea, coffee and rubber plantations to meet Europe's growing need for these commodieties. The colonial government took over the forests, and gave vast areas to European planters at cheap rates. These areas were enclosed and cleared of forests and planted with tea or coffee. The planters were given a free hand to manage and regulate the farms. The labourers were exploited to the hilt and were paid low wages.

(V)Kings / British officials engaged in Shikar: Under colonial rule, the scale of hunting increased to such an extent that various species became almost extinct. The British saw large animals as signs of a wild, primitive and savage society. They believed that by killing dangerous animals the British would civilise India. They gave rewards for the killing of tigers, wolves and other large animals on the grounds that they posed a threat to cultivators. Over 80,000 tigers, 150,000 leopards and 200,000 wolve were killed for reward in period 1875-1925. Gradually the tiger came to be seen as a sporting trophy. The Maharaja of Sarguja alone shot 1,157 tigers and 2,000 leopards up to 1957. A British administrator, George Yule, killed 400 tigers. Initially certain areas of forests were reserved for hunting. Only much later did the environmentalists and conservators begin to argue that all these species of animals needed to be protected and not killed.

i) Shifting Cultivators:. The colonial rulers and shifting cultivation at it for difficult for the government to calculate taxes. As a result a number of communities were forced to leave the forest some had to join alternate occupations in the cities while some rose in rebellion against Colony authority.

Ii) Nomadic and pastoralist communities: The Nomadic and pastoralist Groups suffered a lot . The British government declared some forests are reserved and protected. This Limited their access to the forests. They could not graze their animals in the forest or collect fruits, roots, fuel and Timber. For medicine they could not collect medicinal plants. They had to give up hunting and fishing in the forest areas as well.

iii) Firms trading in Timber/ forest produce: The British Colonial rule affected the Timber Trade in many ways:

a) The British government enacted loss for forest preservation. People were not allowed to cut trees and collect Timber from the forests

b) People could not collect the forest products like coconuts, bamboo, spices, Silk, gum ,e.t c

c) The British government gave the right to only a few European trading firms to trade in the forest product of particular areas.

iv) plantation owners: Large areas of forests were cleared to make way for tea, coffee and Rubber plantations.

Plantation agriculture came to India with the British rule.The Owners of the plantations were mostly Europeans. These European traders started making huge profits. The Indian traders and plantation workers were left at the mercy of European plantation owners.

v) Kings/ British officials engaged in Shikhar( hunting): Hunting was considered a way of enjoyment by the Indian rulers. The King was recognised by the number of tigers or lions killed by him. Even the British government encourage the Killing of animals most of the British officials were found of hunting. Under the British rule the scale of hunting increased to such an extent that various species became almost extinct.

Only after many years past the environmentalist question this uncontrol hunting and suggested the preservation of the animal species.