It is community identity based on birth and belonging rather than on some form of acquired qualifications or accomplishment. It is an identity with one's present and has nothing to bear with the future.

It is community identity based on birth and belonging rather than on some form of acquired qualifications or accomplishment. It is an identity with one's present and has nothing to bear with the future.

Statistics as aggregate of numerical facts : Some quantitative information relating to an individual like Ram has two brothers cannot be taken as statistics. In the same way Ram has 100 rupees in his pocket cannot be taken as statistics. Only the aggregates of data will be taken as statistics. Given below are some examples of statistics.
1. Birth rate in India is 18 per thousand as compared to 8 per thousand in USA.
2. There are 40 students in Class XI compared to just 20 students in Class XII.
3. Over the past 5 years, India has won 40 test matches in cricket and lost 20.

Hundi is a negotiable financial instrument which consists of an unconditional contract to warrant the payment of money, the promise or order.

The relationship between modernisation and secularisation is that –

•They are inter-linked.

•They are both part of a set of modern ideas.

•They both bring change in attitude towards religion.

•They both bring change in ceremonies, rituals, taboos, festivals, sacrifices, social networking, etc.

Suggestions for Project Work 1. PUBLIC TRANSPORT 2. ROLE OF COMMUNICATION MEDIA IN SOCIAL LIFE 3. HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES AND DOMESTIC WORK 4. THE USE OF PUBLIC SPACE 5. CHANGING ASPIRATIONS OF DIFFERENT AGE GROUPS 6. THE ‘BIOGRAPHY’ OF A COMMODITY INTERVIEWS An interview is different from a survey in that it is always conducted in person and usually involves much fewer persons (as few as 5, 20, or 40, usually not much more than that). Interviews may be structured, that is, follow a pre-determined pattern of questions or unstructured, where only a set of topics is pre-decided, and the actual questions emerge as part of a conversation. Interviews may be more or less intensive, in the sense that one may interview a person for a long time (2-3 hours) or in repeated visits to get a really detailed version of their story. Interviews have the advantage of being flexible in that promising topics may be pursued in greater detail, questions may be refined or modified along the way, and clarifications may be sought. The disadvantage of the interview method is that it cannot cover a large number of people and is limited to presenting the views of a select group of individuals. OBSERVATION Observation is a method where the researcher must systematically watch and record what is happening in whatever context or situation that has been chosen for the research. This sounds simple but may not always be easy to do in practice. Careful attention has to be paid to what is happening without pre-judging what is relevant to the study and what is not. Sometimes, what is not happening is as important or interesting as what does actually happen. For example, if your research question is about how different classes of people use specific open spaces, then it is significant that a given class or group of people (say poor people, or middle class people for example) never enter the space, or are never seen in it. COMBINATIONS OF MORE THAN ONE METHOD You can also try to combine methods to approach the same research question from different angles. In fact, this is often highly recommended. For example, if you are researching the changing place of mass media sources like newspapers and television in social life, you could combine a survey with archival methods. The survey will tell you about what is happening today, while the archival methods might tell you about what magazines, newspapers or television programmes were like in the past. 7.2 POSSIBLE THEMES AND SUBJECTS FOR SMALL RESEARCH PROJECTS Here are some suggestions about possible research topics; you can always choose other topics in consultation with your teachers. Remember that these 2020-21 RESEARCH TYPE OF RESEARCH METHOD / TECHNIQUE TOPIC / AREA OBSERVATION SURVEY Modes of Modes of Opinions on Public Transport; behaviour, changes over time; Local Railway or expected etiquette, experiences, Bus Station space sharing difficulties etc. Domestic Appliances Patterns of use; Attitudes/memories (Use of cooking fuel/ domestic division relating to mode; fan, cooler, ac; of labour; different type iron; fridge; mixie...) gender aspects of appliances Use of Public Observe how Opinions of Spaces (roadside, comparable open a cross-section of empty land, etc) spaces are used people on different in different uses of specific localities public spaces . Changing Aspirations Not suitable Boys and Girls of School Children Adults of different at different ages generations (e.g. Classes 5, 8, 11) (from memory) Place of the means of Watch how How much communication people use mobile TV do different in social life phones in public – kind of people (from mobile what place do watch, and what are phones to these devices have their preferred satellite TV) in their lives? programmes? TYPE OF RESEARCH METHOD / TECHNIQUE COMMENTS / ARCHIVAL INTERVIEWS SUGGESTIONS Newspaper and Views of regular Suitable other sources vs. occasional only for for history users; men vs. biggish of change women etc. cities? Advertisement How do Boys to be patterns for different type of encouraged to different kinds people respond to do this; should not of appliances specific appliances? become a ‘girl’s topic’ What were the Do people of Best to take different uses to different social familiar, specific which a particular classes, groups have places that space was put over different views on people know about the years? use of space? and relate to Depends on Talk to one Interviewees availability of group about their should not material from the own evolution; be from past (such as school or talk to different own school essays on this subject) age groups Analysis of . What do people Try not to media coverage feel about the pre-judge the and content on decline of the issue any current letter writing (e.g. it is so issue of after the coming sad that letter writing interest of phones? has declined) – ask, don’t tell.

Corporate culture refers to the beliefs and behaviors that determine how a company's employees and management interact and handle outside business transactions. Often, corporate culture is implied, not expressly defined, and develops organically over time from the cumulative traits of the people the company hires. A company's culture will be reflected in its dress code, business hours, office setup, employee benefits, turnover, hiring decisions, treatment of clients, client satisfaction, and every other aspect of operations.

Because of economic backwardness and insecure livelihood, the tribal face  health problems such as prevalence of disease, like malaria, cholera, tuberculosis, diarrhoea and jaundice, problems associated with malnutrition like iron deficiency and anaemia, high infant mortality rates, low levels of life expectancy, etc.

(a) A tribe theoretically is a territorial group while a caste is a socio-cultural group. When a tribe loses its territorial character, it takes the form of a caste.

(b) Each tribe has its own distinct language than the other but it is not the case with a caste. A tribe never imposes restrictions on its members regarding the choice of occupation but a caste usually promotes hereditary occupations and the principle of birth.

(c) Caste and tribe emphasise and perpetuate collective identities in strikingly similar ways. A caste or tribe may change its name and also its mode of livelihood and still retains its collective identity.

(d) The tribes have segmentary, egalitarian system and are not mutually inter-dependent like the castes which show a system of stratification and organic solidarity.

Caste
The term is derived from the Portuguese word ‘casta’ which means pure breed. In other words it also means a group/community of people. The word refers to a broad institutional arrangement that in Indian languages (beginning with the ancient Sanskrit) is referred to by two distinct terms, varna and jati.

	Caste		Varna
(1)	Closed system	(1)	Open system
(2)	Post vedic period	(2)	Vedic Period
(3)	3000 castes and sub castes	(3)	Four Varnas
(4)	No social mobility	(4)	Social mobility present
(5)	Very rigid	(5)	Not rigid

A social institution consists of a group of people who have come together for a common purpose. These institutions are a part of the social order of society and they govern behavior and expectations of individuals.

I. Caste
The term is derived from the Portuguese word ‘casta’ which means pure breed. In other words it also means a group/community of people. The word refers to a broad institutional arrangement that in Indian languages (beginning with the ancient Sanskrit) is referred to by two distinct terms, varna and jati.

	Caste		Varna
(1)	Closed system	(1)	Open system
(2)	Post vedic period	(2)	Vedic Period
(3)	3000 castes and sub castes	(3)	Four Varnas
(4)	No social mobility	(4)	Social mobility present
(5)	Very rigid	(5)	Not rigid

Varna, literally ‘colour’, is the name given to a four-fold division of society into brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra, though this excludes a significant section of the population composed of the ‘outcastes’, foreigners, slaves, conquered peoples and others, sometimes referred to as the panchamas or fifth category.

Jati is a generic term referring to species or kinds of anything, ranging from inanimate objects to plants, animals and human beings. Jati is the word most commonly used to refer to the institution of caste in Indian languages, though it is interesting to note that, increasingly, Indian language speakers are beginning to use the English word ‘caste’.

Very Bad

Cultural status inequalities are defined as perceived or actual differences in the treatment, public recognition or status of different groups' cultural norms, practices, symbols and customs. Cultural status inequalities cover a range of practices and intentionality on the part of the state in question.

Thanks

(i) Civil society through its voluntary organisations can interfere in the state functions where it is deemed that the state is turning into authoritarian.

(ii) As civil society is beyond control of state and market, it has sufficient power to prevent all that is not good in the common interest of people.

(iii) As civil society is not a purely commercial profit making entity, it highlights the corruption, criminalisation and discrimination practiced on part of government or any other group of people. Eg. private TV channels, trade unions are civil societies.

(iv) During emergency of 1977, it was civil society with its various institutions like media, trade union, pressure groups etc. who launched movements pertaing to environment, human right against forced sterilization and dalit movements

(v) Campaign for right to information is the most recent act of cultural society. It began with an agitation in rural Rajasthan and soon ft became nationwide agitation. Government had to pass the new law namely, the Right To Information Act, 2005.

Thankuu

Education: He said that “It is the education which is the right weapon to cut the social slavery and it is the education which will enlighten the downtrodden masses to come up and gain social status, economic betterment and political freedom” In 1923 Baba Saheb founded ‘Bahishkrit Hitkarni Sabha to spread education among marginalized and to improve their economic conditions. He gave the slogan: “Educate-Agitate-Organize”.

Changing hierarchical structures of Indian society: Dr. Ambedkar devoted his whole life to fight for the annihilation of caste by proliferating a movement against the evils of the caste system. Being himself a Dalit, he made all his efforts to change the hierarchical structures of Indian society and restoration of equal rights/justice to the marginalized and abolition of Untochability. He stood for a complete reorganization and reconstruction of the Hindu society on the principle of equality free from castism. He advocated equality of opportunity. He opted for peaceful and constitutional methods for the sake of resolution of the social problems.

He advocated a society based on three fundamental principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity: Dr. Ambedkar was a remarkable liberal crusader who realized the ideological hollowness of the Dalit Movement and provided necessary ideology to it. He created awareness among depressed classes to have a graceful life.

It means that very few people have the experience of employment in large firms where they get to meet people from other regions and backgrounds. Urban settings do provide a corrective to this i.e. neighbours in the city could be from different regions; but by and large, work for most Indians is still in small scale workplaces.  In small workplaces, personal relationships help determine many aspects of work. If the employer likes you, you may get a salary hike and if you have a fight with him/her, you may lose your job. This is different from large scale organisations where there are well-defined rules, where recruitment is more transparent and there are mechanisms for complaints and redressal if you disagree with your immediate superior.  Very few Indians have access to secure jobs with benefits. Of those who do, two thirds work for the government. This is why government jobs are so popular. The rest are forced to depend on their children in their old age.

uthoritarianism is a form of government characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms. Individual freedoms are subordinate to the state and there is no constitutional accountability and rule of law under an authoritarian regime.

 

Democracy is a system of government where the citizens exercise power by voting. In a direct democracy, the citizens as a whole form a governing body and vote directly on each issue. In a representative democracy the citizens elect representatives from among themselves.

An indirect democracy is a type of democratic government in which voters choose delegates to create the laws of government on their behalf. A common term that is used interchangeably with indirect democracy is a representative democracy.

Indirect democracy is usually contrasted with direct democracy. In direct democracy, people directly vote on whether a law will be passed. But in indirect democracy, people only choose the representatives who will then make the law

Policies to accommodate cultural diversity
1. Policy of Assimilation
Where everybody decides to follow one norm, one belief and one culture and common value.
The whole country follows the majority as they are more powerful.

This is for convenience sake and unity of the country.
e.g., in India Hindus are majority and there are so many festivals as compared to the festivals of the Christians, Parsis, etc.

2. Policy of Integration
-All people follow national culture or pattern in public life and keep all non-material cultures in private life.
e.g., Jana gana mana is national but Vande Mataram would be non-national.
-Because community identities can act as a basis for nation formation, the already existing states view them as dangerous rivals e.g., Khalistan Sikh community wanted a separate nation.
-Therefore, states tend to favour a single homogenous national identity in order to have unity and togetherness.
-But this does not mean we should suppress the identity of the minority as it can lead to revolts and there will be no unity.
-By suppressing the non-national culture of minorities or smaller sections, it can lead to problems and instead of unity the country will divide.
-Thus the government allows people to maintain cultural differences in order to have peace and harmony in the country.

• In every society, some people have a greater share of valued resources – money, property, education, health, and power – than others.
• These social resources can be divided into three forms of capital
• Economic capital in the form of material assets and income
• Cultural capital such as educational qualifications and status.
• Social capital in the form of networks of contacts and social associations.
• Often, these three forms of capital overlap and one can be converted into the other. For example, a person from a well-off family (economic capital) can afford expensive higher education, and so can acquire cultural or educational capital. Someone with influential relatives and friends (social capital) may – through access to good advice, recommendations or information – manage to get a well-paid job.

Increasing inter-regional economic and infrastructural inequalities. Private investors generally want to invest in already developed states where the infrastructure and other facilities are better. The government can give some consideration to regional equity and other social goals rather than just seek to maximize profits. The market economy tends to increase the gap between developed and backwards regions.

Law	Justice
Implementation	Laws apply within one country and to all individual under the government’s jurisdiction. Furthermore, international law applies to all countries that ratify certain covenants or treaties. National laws are enforced by the government and its bodies (police, judiciary, etc.) while international law is enforced by international organizations and tribunals.	Justice is the underlying principle upon which all laws should be based. Yet, there is no implementation of justice as such, but laws and norms can be implemented and enforced in a just and fair way by judges, governments, lawyers and international bodies.
Creation	Laws are created by politicians through a long process of checks and balances and can be approved (or not) by the country’s population. The creation of a law follows a different process depending on the country, and can last few days or even months.	Justice is not created; it is a broad concept that unites universal ethical and moral standards. Although it is not universally recognised, the idea of justice is based on values and principles that are intrinsic to the human nature.