Colonialism brought into being new political, economic and social structural changes.  While the focus is on specific colonial context we also briefly touch on developments after independence. For example, Bombay during British India was planned and re-developed so that by 1900 over three-quarters of India's raw cotton were shipped through the city. Urbanization in the colonial period led to the decline of some earlier urban centres and the emergence of new colonial cities.

Market is a place of interaction between the buyers and sellers, producers and consumers in respect to goods and services.
Social Aspect of Market

• Interchange and interaction among people.
• It is a place where there is exchange of information and building of relationship.

Agrarian Structure Depends upon the land holdings amount of land a person holds. There is unequal distribution of land some people have lots of land and some people don't have any. The agriculture structure is how the land holdings have been distributed among people. Types of Landholdings: 1. Large Landers: Own large amount of land, earlier known as zamindars. 2. Medium landowners Small landowners: Have small amount of land and can make a profit. 3. Marginal landowners: These along with small family grow just enough for consumption of their family and do not have enough land to get surplus to sell in the market. 4. Landless landowners: Have no land of their own, work for others. 5. Tenants: Take land on rent and give the landowner a share of the profit. Positions of women Woman's position is low, they can't own land. Women are usually excluded from ownership of land, because of the prevailing patrilineal kinship system and mode of inheritance. They have equal property rights as the son but they are woman or they are scared to voice their oppose.

There have been varied responses to both cases. Many people have condemned the incidents without any riders. However, there are several others who, in some way, try to justify the violence. While one section is openly casteist, hailing Maruthi Rao, the first accused in Pranay's murder, as a hero, there is another section that is taking refuge in the "parental love" angle to hide their own bigotry.

This latter section typically considers itself "broad-minded" and may issue several disclaimers - of not believing in violence and casteism - before getting into the whataboutery. This section looks at the violence as a consequence of extreme parental grief, arising out of the Dalit men having "deprived" the families of their daughters whom they had "cherished" all these years. Moreover, the women were "too young" to elope and marry someone their families consider unsuitable. Facebook Live streams of many Telugu channels on these two stories are full of comments by people questioning the women for having gone against their parents who had supposedly brought them up lovingly, with many dreams for their future.

By the 1970s all the major definitions of tribe were shown to be faulty. It was pointed out that the tribe-peasantry distinction did not hold in terms of any of the commonly advanced criteria: size, isolation, religion, and means of livelihood. Some Indian “tribes” like Santhal, Gonds, and Bhils are very large and spread over extensive territory. Certain tribes like Munda, Hos and others have long since turned to settled agriculture, and even hunting gathering tribes, like the Birhors of Bihar employ specialised households to make baskets, press oil etc. It has also been pointed out in a number of cases, that in the absence of other alternatives, “castes” (or non-tribals) have turned to hunting and gathering.

Concept of circulation of labour:

1. Commercialisation of agriculture has been responsible for the growth of migrant agricultural labour. Seasonal demand for these labourers increased in Green Revolution regions like: PUNJAB.
2. Labourers migrate also due to the increasing inequalities in rural areas.Men migrate out periodically in search of work and better wages, while women and children are often left behind in their villages.
3. Migrant workers come mainly from drought-prone and less productive regions, and  they go to work for part of the year on farms in the Punjab and Haryana, or on brick kilns in U.P., or construction sites in cities such as New Delhi or Bangalore.
4. These migrant workers have been termed ‘footloose labour’ by Jan Breman. However, these landless workers do not have many rights and are also denied minimum wages.
5. The large-scale circulation of labour has had several significant effects on rural society, in both the receiving and the supplying regions.
6. Women are also emerging as the main source of agricultural labour, leading to the ‘feminisation of agricultural labour force. The insecurity of women is greater because they earn lower wages than men for similar work.

Adivasis are jana or tribe people who are deprived of power, poverty and social stigma. They are the 'real inhabitants of forest' refer as people of forest who donot have any caste, sub-caste and religion . They are removed from their lands by government for industries and mining activities , for this they were not given proper compensation and rehabilitation.

The 67.7 million people belonging to Scheduled Tribes in India are generally considered to be Adivasis, literally meaning indigenous people or original inhabitants, and tribals though the term Scheduled Tribes is not coterminous with the term Adivasis. Scheduled Tribes is an administrative term used for purposes of administering certain specific constitutional privileges, protection and benefits for specific sections of peoples considered historically disadvantaged and backward.

The term Adivasi derives from the Hindi word 'adi' which means of earliest times or from the beginning and 'vasi' meaning inhabitant or resident, and it was coined in the 1930s, largely a consequence of a political movement to forge a sense of identity among the various indigenous peoples of India.

Agrarian Structure

 

Depends upon the land holdings amount of land a person holds.

There is unequal distribution of land some people have lots of land and some people don’t have any.

The agriculture structure is how the land holdings have been distributed among people.

Types of Landholdings:

1. Large Landers: Own large amount of land, earlier known as zamindars.

2. Medium landowners Small landowners: Have small amount of land and can make a profit.

3. Marginal landowners: These along with small family grow just enough for consumption of their family and do not have enough land to get surplus to sell in the market.

4. Landless landowners: Have no land of their own, work for others.

5. Tenants: Take land on rent and give the landowner a share of the profit.

Positions of women

Woman’s position is low, they can’t own land.

Women are usually excluded from ownership of land, because of the prevailing patrilineal kinship system and mode of inheritance.

They have equal property rights as the son but they are woman or they are scared to voice their oppose.

Class and Caste Structure in Rural Areas

 

Interrelated

 

Upper caste were considered to be upper class. But the issue in rural areas is complex

Brahm.ins are the top most caste but not necessarily the wealthiest. The kshatriyas are upper caste as well as upper class.

Dominant Caste

 

After independence, land reforms introduced land ceiling. It set a limit of land holding by each individual.

Large land owners sold away their land to medium land owners as they moved to urban areas to set up factories.

Proprietary Caste

 

Upper caste, rich people, large and mediums land owners controlled the resources and labour force in that particular areas.

Begar-bonded Labourers: were illiterate and did not know how to do any skilled work.

The Constitution abolished untouchability and introduced the reservation provisions. The 1989 Prevention of Atrocities Act revised and strengthened the legal provisions punishing acts of violence or humiliation against Dalits and adivasis.The fact that legislation was passed repeatedly on this subject is proof of the fact that the law alone cannot end a social practice. State action alone cannot ensure social change. No social group however weak or oppressed is only a victim. Human beings are always capable of organizing and acting on their own –often against very heavy odds to struggle for justice and dignity. Dalits too have been increasingly active on the political, agitational and cultural fronts.

Social exclusion is a form of discrimination. It occurs when people are wholly or partially excluded from participating in the economic, social and political life of their community, based on their belonging to a certain social class, category or group. In India, social exclusion occurs on the basis of identities including caste, ethnicity, religion, gender and disability.

The three features of social exclusion

Social exclusion as a concept has three distinguishable features:

1. It involves culturally-defined social categories, with associated cultural perceptions, values and norms that shape social interaction.
2. It is embedded in social relations.
3. It affects people’s rights and entitlements, denying them the opportunities they need to attain and maintain a universally acceptable standard of living and to fulfil their potential.

Higher castes were invariably of higher economic status while lower castes were always witnessed lower in economic status. In modem age, this correlation is getting weaker as we see rich and poor people are equally found in every caste. In the hierarchy of caste system each caste has a specific place and social status. There has been a close correlation between social or caste status and economic status. The high' castes were almost invariably of high economic status. On the other hand, the “low' caste were almost always of low economic status.

Westernisation – Reason for generation conflict.

• Often conflict between generations are seen as cultural conflicts resulting from westernisation.
• Westernisation among the middle class makes generational difference more complex.

Social change is a pait of cultural change which includescience, technology and values of social organization. In other words, social change is a term used to describe variation in any respect of. social processes and social interactions. It can also be described as a mode that.

Meaning of Structural Change:

 

(i) Structural processes of change due to a transformation in the network of social relationships.

 

(ii) Caste, kinship, family and occupational groups constitute some of the structural realities. Change in these relationships is a structural change.

 

(iii) When the traditional agrarian system based on family labour is transformed into agrarian system based on hired labour with a view to produce for the market, we may call it a structural change.

 

(iv) Another example can be the transformation of joint family to nuclear family brings about change in structure and function of family. It is through the process of differentiation of roles that structural change takes place.

India is a country of immense diversity. Race, language, religion and caste etc. constitute the major forms of diversity in India. Groups of people in India differ from each other not only in physical or demographic characteristics but also in distinctive patterns of behavior.

These patterns of behavior are determined by social and cultural factors like language, region, religion and caste. Castes are divided into sub-castes, language into dialects, region into subregions, and religion into sects on ethnic lines.

The Indian sub-continent is a museum of different races. It is said that India is a “Veritable tower of Babel.”.

A. Communalism 

Communalism has been one of the most complex problems that India has been facing. This is generated when individuals belonging to one religion develop excessive affinity to their religion and hatred towards other religions. This kind of feeling promotes religious fundamentalism and fanaticism and proves to be dangerous for the unity and integrity of the country. It is more so for a country like India where people practise all the major religions of the world. But India has been suffering from communalism since independence. As we know, we faced worst kind of communal riots on the eve of independence, and even after. There have been many communal riots in various parts of the country, inflicting immense sufferings on the people.

B. Regionalism 

Regionalism is another obstacle in the way of national integration. On many occasions it encourages people to promote regional interests even at the cost of national priorities. One may think that raising the problems of a particular region is needed to attract the attention of the decision makers and to compel them to fulfill justified regional demands. This thinking is reasonable, because such demands may be based on genuine grievances of the regions and States that have been denied fair shares of projects and industries in the overall structure of development. Those may also be related to the continued neglect of a particular region.

In spite of over six decades of planned development, all regions in our country have not been developed in the desired manner. Along with other factors, the lack of expected socio-economic development results in demands for the creation of new States. Do you know how many times in India various States have been reorganized because of the agitations based on regional aspirations? But when regionalism ignores national interests or encourages people to have negative feelings towards the interests of other regions, it becomes harmful. On many occasions regional protests and demonstrations are based on political considerations. Aggressive regionalism is still more dangerous, as it leads to separatism. We have been experiencing such feelings in certain parts of States of Assam and Jammu and Kashmir.

C. Linguism 

All of us know that India is a multilingual country. People of India speak nearly 2000 languages and dialects. This plurality has been negatively used on many occasions, particularly in the early decades after independence. Every country needs to have a common official language, but it has not been an easy task for India. When a recommendation was made in the Constituent Assembly to recognise Hindi as the official language of India, it was opposed by representatives of almost all the nonHindi speaking areas. A compromise had to be made there. While the Constituent Assembly declared Hindi as the official language, it was provided that English would continue to be used for official purposes of the Union government for a period of 15 years.

When the Official Language Commission set up in 1955 recommended in favour of replacing English by Hindi as an official language, there were widespread protests in all the non-Hindi speaking regions. Such protests and demonstrations were seen once again in 1963, when the Official Language Bill was introduced in Lok Sabha. As a compromise, the Act of 1963 allowed the continued use of English for official purposes without any time limit. Although the demand for language-based States was met comprehensively when the States were reorganized on linguistic basis in 1956, fresh movements are going on in some parts of the country. Such movements generate many challenges for national integration 

D. Extremism 

The extremist movements going on in different parts of the country are yet another challenge to national integration. You must have heard about the Naxalite movement or Maoist movement. These movements quite often use violence, create fear in public life, cause loss of lives of government personnel and people and destroy public property. Mostly the youth participate in such movements. The basic reason for taking up arms by the youth is the continuing state of socio-economic deprivations. Moreover, the day-to-day humiliation, denial of justice, human rights violations, various kinds of exploitation and political marginalization prompt them to join the Naxalite movement. But the extremist activities have been threat to law and order and peaceful living of the people residing in the affected areas.

By voting, citizens are participating in the democratic process. Citizens vote for leaders to represent them and their ideas, and the leaders support the citizens' interests. There are two special rights only for U.S. citizens: voting in federal elections and running for federal office. Our citizens embrace democracy as the best form of government, and have reasonable expectations that it will deliver a better quality of life. In many countries in the region, social and economic conditions slow the consolidation of democratic institutions. Representatives are elected by the public, as in national elections for the national legislature. Elected representatives may hold the power to select other representatives, presidents, or other officers of the government or of the legislature, as the prime minister in the latter case. (indirect representation).

Following is the impact of land reforms on Indian agriculture after independence:

(i) Abolition of Zamindari System: The legislation regarding the abolition of Zamindari System was probably the most effective. It succeeded in taking away the superior rights of Zamindars over the land and weakening their economic and political power.

(ii) Tenancy Abolition & Regulation Acts: These laws attempted either to outlaw tenancy altogether or to regulate rents to give some security to the tenants.

(iii) Land Ceiling Acts: These laws imposed an upper limit on the amount of land that can be owned by a particular family. The state is supposed to identify and take possession of surplus land and the excess collected was redistributed for agricultural purpose to the landless.

(iv) Led to Benami transfers: In most cases landowners managed to divide the land among relatives and others including servants, in so-called 'benami transfers' which allowed them to keep control over it.

India has more than 50% of its population below the age of 25 and more than 65% below the age of 35. It is expected that, in 2020, the average age of an Indian will be 29 years, compared to 37 for China and 48 for Japan; and, by 2030, India's dependency ratio should be just over 0.4. India's population is young. Its birth and death rates are both near the global average. More than half the population is under age 30 and less than one-fourth is age 45 or older. Life expectancy is about 68 for men and 70 for women.

Thanks

Transformation of Rural Society

• an increase in the use of agricultural labour as cultivation became more intensive;
• a shift from payment in kind (grain) to payment in cash;
• a loosening of traditional bonds or hereditary relationships between farmers or landowners and agricultural workers (known as bonded labour);

Contrast between the composition of the caste and the tribe.

(a) A tribe theoretically is a territorial group while a caste is a socio-cultural group. When a tribe loses its territorial character, it takes the form of a caste.

(b) Each tribe has its own distinct language than the other but it is not the case with a caste. A tribe never imposes restrictions on its members regarding the choice of occupation but a caste usually promotes hereditary occupations and the principle of birth.

(c) Caste and tribe emphasise and perpetuate collective identities in strikingly similar ways. A caste or tribe may change its name and also its mode of livelihood and still retains its collective identity.

(d) The tribes have segmentary, egalitarian system and are not mutually inter-dependent like the castes which show a system of stratification and organic solidarity.

a n s w e r is
Stereotypes: A fixed and inflexible characterisation of a group of people. A fixed, often simplistic generalisation, about a particular group or class of people.

The expression is originated for Gaya lal an MLA of haryana in 1967 who changed his party thrice in fortnight,from congress to united front then back to congress and then within 9 hours back to united front.This represent the the new emerging feature of defection in Indian politics that played an important role in making and unmaking of government.

The main objective is to achieve a stable population at a level consistent with the requirements of sustainable economic growth, social development, and environmental protection. Several policies have been formulated in different Five-Year Plans by the Government of India for population control. The immediate objective is to address the unmet needs for contraception, health care infrastructure and health personnel and to provide integrated service delivery for basic reproductive and child health care.