Steps in the Formulation of a Client's Problem:

Understanding of the Problem: The therapist tries to understand the full implications of the distress being experienced by the client. It is done during the first few sessions of establishing therapeutic relationship.
Identification of the Areas to be targeted for Treatment in Psychotheraphy: The theoretical formulation clearly identifies the problem areas to be targeted for therapy. Thus, if a client seeks help for inability to hold a job and reports inability to face superiors, the clinical formulation in behaviour therapy would state it as lack of assertiveness skills and anxiety. The target areas have thus been identified as inability to assert oneself and heightened anxiety.
Choice of Techniques for Treatment: The choice of techniques of treatment depends on the therapeutic system in which the therapist has been trained. However, even within this broad domain, the choice of techniques, timing of the techniques, and expectations of outcome of the therapy depend upon the clinical formulation.

The clinical formulation is an ongoing process, formulations may require reformations as clinical insights are gained in the process of therapy. Usually the first one or two sessions yield enough clinical material for the initial clinical formulation. It is not advisable to start psychotherapy without a clinical formulation.

 Self-control is about inhibiting strong impulses; self-regulation is about reducing the frequency and intensity of strong impulses by managing stress-load and recovery.

The diagnostic category of pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) refers to a group of disorders characterized by delays in the development of socialization and communication skills. Parents may note symptoms as early as infancy, although the typical age of onset is before 3 years of age. The DSM-5 redefined autism. Its predecessor, the DSM-IV-TR, included five Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDDs): Autistic Disorder, Asperger's Disorder, Rett's Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS).

To prevent itself from being overwhelmed by

excessive demands from the id and superego, the

ego relies on

A) the Oedipus complex B) defense mechanisms

C) the reality principle

D) the pleasure principle

Answer: The answer is B. An example of such a

defense mechanism is displacement, the process of substituting a more acceptable goal.

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Gardner's theory based on information processing approaches functions on three basic principles: (i) Intelligence is not a single entity, there exist multiple intelligences.
(ii) The intelligences are independent from each other.
(iii) Different types of intelligences work together to provide a solution of problem. Gardner has so far proposed eight intelligences, however all individuals do not possess them in equal proportion. The particular situation or the context decides the prominence of one type of intelligence over the others.
Following are the eight types of intelligence:
1. Linguistic: This is related to reading, writing, listening, talking, understanding etc. Poets exhibit this ability better than others.
2. Logical-Mathematical: This type of intelligence deals with abstract reasoning and manipulation of symbols involved in numerical problems. It is exhibited in scientific work.
3. Spatial: This type of intelligence is involved in perceiving third dimension formation of images. It is used while navigating in space, forming, transforming and using mental images. Sailors, engineers, surgeons, pilots, care drivers, sculptors and painters have highly developed spatial intelligence.
4. Musical: Persons with musical intelligence show sensitivity to pitch and tone required for singing, playing and instrument, composing and appreciating music etc.
5. Bodily Kinesthetic: It requires the skills and dexterity for fine coordinated motor movements, such as those required for dancing, athletics, surgery, craft making etc.
6. Inter-personal: It requires understanding of motives, feelings and behaviours of other people. Sales people, politicians, teachers, clinicians and religious readers have high degree of inter-personal intelligence.
7. Intra-personal: It is related to understanding one's self and developing a sense of identity, e.g., philosophers and spiritual leaders.
8. Naturalistic: It is related to recognizing the flora and fauna, i.e., natural world and making a distinction in the natural world. It is more possessed by hunters, farmers, tourists, students of biological sciences etc.

Common behavioral therapy methods include: aversion, which is pairing a behavior with a punishment until the behavior stops; desensitization, a process of introducing stress in increments so clients can learn to control their response to it; role playing, or the learning of proper behavior by practice or by modeling; Treatment is centered around how someone's thoughts and beliefs influence their actions and moods. It often focuses on a person's current problems and how to solve them. The long-term goal is to change a person's thinking and behavioral patterns to healthier ones.

(i) Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people's characteristics.
(ii) Different traits can exist in varying degrees in an individual.
(iii) Each one of us is unique as we possess a novel or typical combination of various traits.

Psychological assessment — also known as psychological testing — is done to help a psychologist better understand an individual and provide valuable insights into the individual's behavior, skills, thoughts and personality. A useful psychological test must be both valid (i.e., there is evidence to support the specified interpretation of the test results) and reliable (i.e., internally consistent or give consistent results over time, across raters, etc.).

There are nine types of psychological tests:

• Intelligence tests.
• Personality tests.
• Attitude tests.
• Achievement tests.
• Aptitude tests.
• Neuropsychological tests.
• Vocational tests.
• Direct observation tests.

Personality can be described as how a person affects others, how he understands, and views himself, and his pattern of inner and outer measurable traits. It encompasses the relatively stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioral patterns a person has. In fact, our personality changes over long periods of time. Personality is defined as the characteristic sets of behaviors, cognitions, and emotional patterns that evolve from biological and environmental factors. ... The study of the psychology of personality, called personality psychology, attempts to explain the tendencies that underlie differences in behavior.

The theories are grouped into four major theory types: (1) psychometric theories; (2) cognitive theories; (3) cognitive-contextual theories; and (4) biological theories. Psychometric theories derive from studying individual differences in test performance on cognitive tests. Louis Leon Thurstone proposed theory in 1930's that intelligence is composed of several different factors. The seven primary mental abilities in Thurstone's model were verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed and reasoning. The three main ways of measuring intelligence: psychometrics, information processing and cognitive structural approaches.

Psychometric theories are based on a model that portrays intelligence as a composite of abilities measured by mental tests. To identify the underlying sources of these performance differences, Spearman devised factor analysis, a statistical technique that examines patterns of individual differences in test scores. The theories are grouped into four major theory types: (1) psychometric theories; (2) cognitive theories; (3) cognitive-contextual theories; and (4) biological theories. Psychometric theories derive from studying individual differences in test performance on cognitive tests.

The label that we/people use in their behavior which is different from the source. Which what people accept the norms of society is called the abnormal.

Intelligence is the results of both hereditary and environment as follows:
Hereditary: The effect of hereditary on intelligence comes from the studies on twins and adopted children. The intelligence of identical twins brought up together shows a correlation of 0.90, while identical twins reared in different environments co-relate 0.72 in term of intellectual, personality and behavioural characteristic. The intelligence of fraternal twins slows a correlation of 0.60 and that of brothers and sisters correlates 0.50. Another study shows that children's intelligence is more like their biological parents than their adoptive parents.
Environment: Studies have shown that a with the growth of children, their intelligence tends to match that of their adoptive parents. Children from disadvantaged backgrounds and adopted into higher socio-economic status families shows a large increase in their intelligence levels. Rich nutrition, good family background and quality schooling increases intelligence, while environmental deprivation lowers intelligence.

Thus, it could be concluded that intelligence is an interplay of both (nature and environment). Both hereditary and environment go hand in glove in determining intelligence.

Personality is defined as the characteristic sets of behaviors, cognitions, and emotional patterns that evolve from biological and environmental factors. While there is no generally agreed upon definition of personality, most theories focus on motivation and psychological interactions with one's environment. Personality is the combination of behavior, emotion, motivation, and thought patterns that define an individual. Personality psychology attempts to study similarities and differences in these patterns among different people and groups. The four temperament theory is a proto-psychological theory which suggests that there are four fundamental personality types: sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic.

All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity.

They vary in their intellectual ability. Some are exceptionally bright and some are below average. Some possess high IQ range while others have average or below average.

All the scores gradually and symmetrically decline

towards both the sides but never touch the X-axis.

(i) The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve. This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value, called the mean.

(ii) On the basis of IQ, people are classified in different groups. It is clear that only 2.2 percent people who possess above 130 IQ range are very intelligent or very superior, their IQ score is more than 130.

(iii) People falling between 90-109 IQ range are considered as average. The mean IQ score in a population is 100. People with IQ scores in the range of 90-110 have normal intelligence.

(iv) Those with IQ below 70 are suspected to have

'mental retardation'. Mental retardation refers to sub-

average intellectual functioning. The behaviour is maladaptive and manifest in four forms i.e., mild, moderate, severe and profound mental retardation. The extreme right also lie to 2.2 percent population which

are known as gifted i.e., they enjoy exceptional intelligence, exceptional talent and exceptional

creativity.

Psychological tests are standardised tools to measure abilities and personalities traits. It may be verbal, non-verbal or performance.