India faced the following three challenges at the time of independence in 1947 :

(i) The first challenge was to shape a nation that was united, yet accommodative of the diversity in our society. India was a land of continental size and diversity. Its people spoke different languages and followed different culture and religions. At that time it aws widely believed that a country full of such kinds of diversity could not remain together for long.

(ii) The second challenge was to establish democracy. The Constitution had granted fundamental rights and extended right to vote to every citizen. India adopted Representative democracy based on the parliamentary form of goverment.The challenge was to develop democratic practices in accordance with the Constitution.

(iii) The third challenge was to ensure the development and well-being of the entire society and not only of some sections. The Constitution had adopted the principle of equality and provided special protection to socially disadvantaged groups and religious and cultural communities. The real challenge was to evolve effective policies for economic development and eradication of poverty.

 India‘s policy of non-alignment:

 (i) Not to join either of the two camps- the US and the USSR.

 (ii) Taking independent stand on various international issues. 

 1. Globalisation has not generated much more employment opportunities because it needs highly skilled people only.
2. The foreign companies focus on their profit orientation projects only in place of social welfare.
3. It has widened income disparities by making the rich richer and the poor more poorer.
4. Gradually, globalisation is also a reason for depletion of flora and fauna in country.
5. Even farmers are supposed to be well educated if they want to use modern methods of cultivation.

World Trade Organisation (WTO) is an organisation with 160 members (2014), and it aims to liberalise the international trade. At the international level, the WTO has pressured developing countries to liberalise trade and investment. 

Functions:

• To implement of rules and provision reviewing of trade policy.
• To provide a platform for member countries to decide future strategies related to trade and stuff.
• To ensure optimum use of the world resources.
• To administer rules and regulations related to dispute settlement.

World Trade Organisation (WTO) is an organisation with 160 members (2014), and it aims to liberalise the international trade. At the international level, the WTO has pressured developing countries to liberalise trade and investment. 

Functions:

• To implement of rules and provision reviewing of trade policy.
• To provide a platform for member countries to decide future strategies related to trade and stuff.
• To ensure optimum use of the world resources.
• To administer rules and regulations related to dispute settlement.

The Congress Parliamentary Board met on July 11, 1969, to discuss the presidential candidate. The Syndicate had already decided on nominating Sanjiva Reddy, whose affinity to them was well known. Mrs Gandhi was naturally loath to do so. At the meeting, she suggested nominating the veteran dalit leader, Jagjivan Ram. When this was shot down, she asked that they postpone a decision to allow more time for arriving at a consensus. Nijalingappa, however, forced a vote in the six-member Parliamentary Board. Mrs Gandhi was outvoted four to two.
Even as a brooding Indira Gandhi left for Bangalore, a fresh opening presented itself. The Vice-President V V Giri announced that he would contest the presidential elections as an independent candidate. Mrs Gandhi knew that before she could support Giri against her own party's nominee, she would have to regain the initiative within the party. This she did first by forcing Morarji Desai out of the Cabinet and then by nationalizing banks. She also went ahead and filed the nomination for Sanjiva Reddy, though she refrained from issuing a whip to Congress MPs.
The Syndicate realized that Mrs Gandhi might yet come out in support of Giri. Nijalingappa took a fatal misstep by approaching the main opposition parties, Swatantra and Jana Sangh, to cast their second preference vote for Reddy (the opposition's candidate was C D Deshmukh). Mrs Gandhi seized the opportunity to denounce Nijalingappa's move. Yet, she did not formally reveal her preference until the night before the elections, when she called on her party to 'vote according to conscience'.
V V Giri won the poll by a narrow margin. The voting figures showed that a majority of Congress members had actually voted for Reddy. Giri had edged through with a minority of Congress votes and support from a curious combination of opposition groups.

Under the leadership of Indira Gandhi, the Indian National Congress won a fourth consecutive term in power and over 54% of the seats, while no other party won more than 10% of the votes or seats. However, the INC's victory was significantly lower than the results they had achieved in the previous three elections under Jawaharlal Nehru. By 1967, economic growth in India had slowed – the 1961–1966 Five-Year Plan gave a target of 5.6% annual growth, but the actual growth rate was 2.4%. Under Lal Bahadur Shastri, the government's popularity was boosted after India prevailed in the 1965 War with Pakistan, but this war (along with the previous 1962 War with China) had helped put a strain on the economy. Internal divisions were emerging in the Indian National Congress and its two popular leaders Nehru and Shastri had both died. Indira Gandhi had succeeded Shastri as leader, but a rift had emerged between her and Deputy Prime Minister Morarji Desai, who had been her rival in the 1966 party leadership contest

The expression ‘Aaya Ram, Gaya Ram’ became popular in the political vocabulary in India to describe the practice of frequent floor-crossing by legislators. The phrase became the subject of numerous jokes and cartoons. Ultimately, the Constitution was amended to prevent defections.

Impact on the Indian political system are as follows :

• It leads to instability within a political party.
• It promotes political opportunism in political system.
• It erodes the faith, and trust of common in political system.
• It causes instable government.

Narmada Bachao Andolan also was known as NBA is a social movement formed by activist Medha Patkar. NBA consists of human activist, farmers, Adivasis, and people established on the bank of Narmada river. The main aim of the movement is against the large dams built or in process across the Narmada river. The Narmada flows across Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and ends up in the Arabian sea.

After the World War II; the Germany was partitioned in two parts i.e. West Germany and East Germany. In the 50s and 60s, East Germans fled to West Germany in the search of better job opportunities and better education. In this migration there were hundreds of artisans, professors, doctors, engineers and businessmen. Due this mass brain drain the economy of East Germany started weakening which compelled the government of the East Germany to build a Berlin Wall in 1961.

The White Revolution is referred to as the concept of unexpected increase in milk production. It was launched in India from the city named Anand of old Kheda district (at present, Anand district) in Gujarat. The milk-producing farmers of Kheda formed a co-operative society in 1946 to oppose the exploitative policies of private firms.

The Quit India Movement started on 9 August, 1942. The main reason for its beginning was that during the Second World War, Japan had occupied Burma. It was feared that Japan might attack India to harm the British interests. At this time, Congress passed a resolution to start the Quit India Movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. This resolution was passed as many leaders of the Congress felt that Japan would not attack India if the British left it. Besides the resolution for Quit India Movement, the Congress also resolved not to accept anything less than complete independence for India.

Beginning and Progress of the Movement : The Quit India Movement was started on 9 August, 1942 under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. He challenged the British to quit India. Soon after there were slogans of “Quit India” all over the country. The British put their full might to repress this movement. Most of the political leaders were arrested. It infuriated the people who started plundering government offices, railway stations and post offices. The British became more adamant and they put innumerable people behind the bars. The whole country was turned into a prison. Till February, 1943, the Quit India continued with success. But after that, it lost its momentum because of the repressive policy of the government. It came to an end slowly and steadily.

Significance : Quit India was really a mass movement. It had the participation of lakhs of ordinary people. The British officials had also realised how wide was the discontent among the people against them and their rule. They came to know that the ultimate goal of all the Indians was complete independence from the British rule. No doubt the British crushed the movement but it failed to crush the spirit for freedom inherent in the hearts of the common people. So great was the impact of this movement that the British had free India within three years from the end of this historic movement.

Emergency was proclaimed in response to petition filed by Raj Narain to declare Indira Gandhi’s election invalid.
(i) On June 25, 1975, the government declared the threat of internal disturbances to invoke Article 352 of constitution.
(ii) Article 352 can declare emergency on ground of either internal or external disturbances.
(iii) The government decided a grave crisis to be arisen to proclaim emergency to bring law and order, restore efficiency and implement pro-poor welfare programmes.
(iv) The President Fakhruddin Adi Ahmad proclaimed emergency which became the most controversial episode in Indian Politics.

Q u e s t i o n :
A n s w e r : What is meant by the expression ‘Aya Ram, Gaya Ram’?
The expression ‘Aya Ram, Gaya Ram’ is meant to describe the practice of frequent floor-crossing by legislators.

Answers: Russia is not is South Asian country

Explanation:

Modern definitions of South Asia are consistent in including Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives as the constituent countries.

Coalition government is a government formed when no single party secures absolute majority in the Lok Sabha. In such a situation, two or more parties come together and form a government.

In a governmental system, a party leader acts as the official representative of their political party. The party leader is typically responsible for managing the party's relationship with the general public. Democratic government, which is elected by and accountable to its citizens, protects individual rights so that citizens in a democracy can undertake their civic obligations and responsibilities, thereby strengthening the society as a whole.

A by-election, also spelled bye-election, and also known as a special election (United States, the Philippines) or a bypoll (India), is an election used to fill an office that has become vacant between general elections.

In most cases these elections occur after the incumbent dies or resigns, but they also occur when the incumbent becomes ineligible to continue in office (because of a recall, ennoblement, criminal conviction, or failure to maintain a minimum attendance). Less commonly, these elections have been called when a constituency election is invalidated by voting irregularities.

Syndicate was a group of powerful and influential leaders from within the Congress:

• Syndicate was led by K. Kamraj, former chief minister of Tamilnadu and the then president of Congress party. It also includes some powerful leaders like S.K. Patil, S. Nijalingappa, N. Sanjeeva Reddy and Atulya Ghosh.
• In the sixties, Syndicate played a decisive role by installing both Lai Bahadur Shastri and Indira Gandhi as a Prime Minister.
• Syndicate played decisive say in Indira Gandhi’s first council of Ministers and formation and implementation of policies.
• After a split, two groups in Congress were created i.e. Congress (O), led by Syndicate and Congress (R), led by Indira Gandhi.
• Congress (R), won popularity after 1971 and Syndicate lost power and prestige.

The Arab Spring was a series of pro-democracy uprisings that enveloped several largely Muslim countries, including Tunisia, Morocco, Syria, Libya, Egypt and Bahrain. The events in these nations generally began in the spring of 2011, which led to the name. However, the political and social impact of these popular uprisings remains significant today, years after many of them ended.

India faced the following three challenges at the time of independence in 1947:

1. The first challenge was to shape a nation that was united, yet accommodative of the diversity in our society. There were different culture, religions, languages in the country. It was a very serious question of unity and integration which was to be solved by the leaders.
2. The second challenge was to establish democracy. The Constitution had granted fundamental rights and the right to vote to every citizen. Representative democracy had been adopted under the Constitution. The challenge was to develop democratic practices in accordance with the Constitution.
3. The third challenge was to ensure the development and well-being of the entire society and not only of some sections. The Constitution had adopted the principle of equality and provided special protection to socially disadvantaged groups and religious and cultural communities. The Directive Principles of State Policy aimed at setting up a welfare state but th