Causes : Some Mizos believed that they were never a part of British India. A famine in 1959 in Mizo hills increased their anger and dissatisfaction which led to formation of Mizo National Front under the leadership of Laldenga.

Activities : They started an armed campaign and fought guerilla war for independence. They got support from Pakistan and secured shelter in then East Pakistan. The Indian security forces countered it with series of repressive measures. The insurgency continued for about two decades.

Outcome : (i) In 1986 a peace agreement was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga. Mizoram was granted full- fledged statehood with special powers.

(ii) Laldenga took over as the Chief Minister.

(iii) Mizoram is one of the most peaceful states and has taken big strides in literacy and development.

Causes of confrontation between the Union Government and the Judiciary.

(i) Constitutional issue about the amendment to the Fundamental Rights.

(ii) Can the Parliament curtail the Right to Property by amending the constitution? 

(iii) The Parliament amended and abridged the Fundamental Rights to implement DPSPs. But the Judiciary did not agree to this. 

(iv) It is in the Keshvananda Bharti Case when the Judiciary asserted that the basic features of the constitution cannot be amended even by the Parliament.

(v) Filling up the vacancy of the Chief Justice of India by not appointing the senior most judge.

(i) The Soviet political system centered around the communist party and no other political party was allowed.

(ii) Economy was planned and controlled by the state. State ownership was the dominant form of ownership: land and productive assets were owned and controlled by the Soviet state.

(iii) It had a domestic, consumer industry that produced everything from pin to cars.The Soviet state ensured a minimum standard of living for all citizens,and the government subsidised basic necessities including health, education, child-care and other welfare schemes.

nspite of the Soviet economy growing at a rapid pace after the Second World War, people were growing wary of the Soviet system and began opposing it in later years. This was because of the following reasons:

• Since the state controlled all factors of production, the Soviet system became very bureaucratic and authoritarian making life difficult for the citizens
• Democracy and freedom of speech was denied to the people
• The Communist Party of Soviet Union controlled all institutions and it was not accountable to the people

Mikhail Gorbachev  was the General Secreatary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1985. He believed that reforms were necessary to keep USSR at par with the West. He initiated policies to democratise and reform the Soviet Union.  The efforts of Gorbachev to give some degree of autonomy to people in the Soviet Union made people to demand more rights and freedom. They started protesting against their own governments and the communist regimes began to fall one after the other. Boris Yeltsin was a member of the Communist party who gradually began to believe in free market economy and democracy. After the introduction of reforms in Soviet Russia by Gorbachev, a coup took place in Russia encouraged by the Communist Party. Yeltsin vehemently opposed this coup and people too did not want to now live under the communist regime. The coup failed and Yeltsin emerged as a national hero. He won elections in Russia and in December 1991, under his leadership- Russia, Ukraine and Belarus- three major republics of the USSR disbanded the Soviet Union. THis finally led to the disintegration of the Soviet Union. 

Kashmir issue : Soon after the partition the two countries were involved in a conflict over the fate of Kashmir. The Pakistani government claimed that Kashmir belonged to it. This led to wars in 1947-48 and 1965. India won a decisive war against Pakistan in 1971 but the Kashmir question remained unsolved.

(ii) There is a conflict over strategic issues like the control of the Siachen glacier and over acquisition of arms. Both the countries have nuclear weapons and missiles to deliver arms against each other. In 1998 India conducted nuclear explosion in Pokharan while Pakistan responded by carrying out nuclear test in the Chagai Hills.

(iii) The Indian government has blamed Pakistan for helping the kashmir militants with arms, money and protection to carry out terrorists strikes against India. It also believes Pakistan aided pro Khalistani militants with arms and ammunitions during 1985-1995.

(iv) According to India, Pakistan’s spy agency ISI is involved in various anti-India campaigns in India's north east operating secretly through Bangladesh and Nepal.

(v) There are differences over the sharing of river waters. However, Indus-waters Treaty has solved this problem.

(vi) The two countries are not in agreement over the demarcation line in Sir Creek in the Rann of Kutch.

Lok Sabha Elections, 1977

The Janata Party made this election into a referendum on the emergency.

For the first time since Independence, the Congress Party was defeated in the Lok Sabha elections.

The Congress could win only 154 seats in the Lok Sabha elections. The Janata Party and its allies won 330 out of 542 seats in the Lok Sabha; Janata Party itself won 295 seats and thus enjoyed a clear majority

(a)Causes : Students started agitation due to rising prices, food scarcity, unemployment and corruption.

(b)Leadership: Jayaprakash Narayan joined the movement on the condition that the movement will remain non violent and will not limit to Bihar.

(c) Demands : Jayaprakash Narayan demanded the dismissal of Congress government in Bihar and gave a call for total revolution in the social, economic and political spheres in order to establish true democracy.

(d) Activities : (i) A series of bandhs, gheraos and strikes were organised.

(ii) In March, Jayaprakash Narayan led a people’s march to the Parliament.

Students organized the movement against: 
1. Rising prices of food grains, cooking oil and other essential commodities. 
2. Corruption in high places. 
Assess Role played by Jai Prakash Narayan: 
Satyagraha was organized by Jayaprakash Narayan for Indira Gandhi’s resignation, he appealed to people not to obey illegal and immoral orders by a massive demonstration on 25 June 1975. All these changed the political mood of the country against Congress.  

This period also witnessed tensions in the relationship between the Parliament and the Judiciary. The major conflicts between the Parliament and Judiciary during the leadership of Indira Gandhi were :

On the issue of Fundamental Right and right to property, the Supreme Court denied the amendment to Constitution. While on the issue of Fundamental Right giving effect to Directive principles, Parliament amended the Constitution, but later Supreme Court rejected it.

Court gave a decision that there are some basic features of the Constitution and the Parliament cannot amend these basic features. This created tension between parliament and jucidiary.

Tension between judiciary and executive further expanded, when a vacancy arose of the post of Chief Justice of India. As per the constitutional rule, senior-most judge of the Supreme Court should be appointed as Chief Justice of India in case of vacancy. But in 1973 government ignored the seniority of three judges and appointed Ajit Nath Ray as Chief Justice of India.

Appointment became a topic of tension. Government’s decision was questioned by the three judges who were superseded.

People were talking about the need of a judiciary and bureaucracy which would be committed to the plan of executive and legislature. Highest point in controversy came when High Court declared Indira Gandhi’s election invalid.

This period also witnessed tensions in the relationship between the Parliament and the Judiciary. The major conflicts between the Parliament and Judiciary during the leadership of Indira Gandhi were :

1. On the issue of Fundamental Right and right to property, the Supreme Court denied the amendment to Constitution. While on the issue of Fundamental Right giving effect to Directive principles, Parliament amended the Constitution, but later Supreme Court rejected it.
2. Court gave a decision that there are some basic features of the Constitution and the Parliament cannot amend these basic features. This created tension between parliament and jucidiary.
3. Tension between judiciary and executive further expanded, when a vacancy arose of the post of Chief Justice of India. As per the constitutional rule, senior-most judge of the Supreme Court should be appointed as Chief Justice of India in case of vacancy. But in 1973 government ignored the seniority of three judges and appointed Ajit Nath Ray as Chief Justice of India.
4. Appointment became a topic of tension. Government’s decision was questioned by the three judges who were superseded.
   People were talking about the need of a judiciary and bureaucracy which would be committed to the plan of executive and legislature. Highest point in controversy came when High Court declared Indira Gandhi’s election invalid.

National Development Council (NDC) or the Rashtriya Vikas Parishad is the apex body for decision making and deliberations on development matters in India presided over by the Prime Minister. National Development Council was set up on August 6, 1952, to strengthen and mobilize the effort and resources of the nation in support of the Plan, to promote common economic policies in all vital spheres, and to ensure the balanced and rapid development of all parts of the country. The National Development Council is one of the key organizations of the planning system in India. It symbolizes the federal approach to planning and is the instrument for ensuring that the planning system adopts a truly national perspective. 

1. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

2. Cuba was an ally of the Soviet Union and received diplomatic and financial aid from it.

3. In 1962, the leader of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev, placed nuclear missiles in Cuba for converting it into a Russian base.

4. The Cuban Missile Crisis was a high point of what came to be known as the Cold War.

Under the leadership of Indira Gandhi, the Indian National Congress won a fourth consecutive term in power and over 54% of the seats, while no other party won more than 10% of the votes or seats. However, the INC's victory was significantly lower than the results they had achieved in the previous three elections under Jawaharlal Nehru. By 1967, economic growth in India had slowed – the 1961–1966 Five-Year Plan gave a target of 5.6% annual growth, but the actual growth rate was 2.4%. Under Lal Bahadur Shastri, the government's popularity was boosted after India prevailed in the 1965 War with Pakistan, but this war (along with the previous 1962 War with China) had helped put a strain on the economy. Internal divisions were emerging in the Indian National Congress and its two popular leaders Nehru and Shastri had both died. Indira Gandhi had succeeded Shastri as leader, but a rift had emerged between her and Deputy Prime Minister Morarji Desai, who had been her rival in the 1966 party leadership contest

Major changes country witnessed at the time of Fourth General Elections’

(i) Two prime ministers died in quick succession.

(ii) The period was fraught with grave economic crises.

(iii) Widespread drought and decline in agricultural production.

(iv) Serious food shortage.

(v) Depletion of foreign exchange reserves.

(vi) Drop in industrial production and exports.

(vii) Sharp rise in military expenditures.

(viii) Diversion of resource from planning and economic development.

Planning Commission was set up in March 1950 by a simple resolution of the Government of India.

It has an advisory role and its recommendations become effective only when these are approved by the Union Cabinet.

The expression ‘Aaya Ram, Gaya Ram’ became popular in the political vocabulary in India to describe the practice of frequent floor-crossing by legislators. The phrase became the subject of numerous jokes and cartoons. Ultimately, the Constitution was amended to prevent defections.

Impact on the Indian political system are as follows :

• It leads to instability within a political party.
• It promotes political opportunism in political system.
• It erodes the faith, and trust of common in political system.
• It causes instable government.

1. The Congress party succeeded in maintaining its dominance until 1967 due to the following reasons:
   1. The Congress party was supported by elites, educated business classes and middle classes people. It also got support from peasants because of its socialist nature. In this way had support from every section of society.
   2. It had many popular faces like Jawaharlal Nehru, C Rajgopalachari, Vallabhbhai Patel etc. Moreover, Jawaharlal Nehru was charismatic and a very popular leader. The popularity of these Congress leaders had a great impact over the face of Congress in General Elections.
   3. Congress worked at the upper level as well as at the grass root level. Congress was popularised due to the participation in the civil disobedience movement. Its role in the National Movement for freedom had been a major reason for its success in First three General Elections.
   4. During the period of Nehru Ji, Congress attained mass popularity, but the powerful narrow elite of Congress continued to benefit from the low level of political consciousness of the electorate.
   5. The traditional localities made Congress, a one-party dominance.

India has maintained good relations with all the post-communist countries but its relations with Russia are an important aspect of India's foreign policy. The relations during the Cold War were as given below:

1)  Economic : Russia gave aid and technical assistance for steel plants like Bhilai, Bokaro,Visakhapatnam and machinery plants like Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. The Soviet Union accepted Indian currency for trade when India was short of foreign exchange.

2) Political: The Soviet Union supported India's stand on Kashmir issue in the UN. It supported India during the war with Pakistan in 1971.

3) Military: India received most of its military hardware from the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union entered into various agreements allowing India to jointly produce military equipment.

4) Culture : Hindi films and Indian culture became popular in the Soviet Union. A large number of Indian writers and artists visited the USSR.

The major events in the Indo-China relations are as examined below :

1. Great powers : Before the advent of western imperialism both were great powers. However, there was limited interaction between the two and neither country was very familiar with the other.

2. Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai: After independence for a brief period the two countries came closer and the slogan Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai became popular.

3. Tibet (1950) and border conflict (1962) : Chinese takeover of Tibet (1950) and border conflict (1962) had negative effect on relationship. Diplomatic relations between the two countries were downgraded until 1976.

4. Change in China’s political leadership : After the change in political leadership the policy have become more pragmatic and less ideological. A series of talks to resolve the border issue were initiated in 1981.

5. Rajiv Gandhi’s China visit and its outcomes : Rajiv Gandhi’s visit in December 1988 had improve the relations. Measures to maintain peace have been taken. Various agreements for cooperation have been signed. India-China trade has been growing at 30 percent per year since 1999. It is hoped that more positive and sound relationship will be established in future.

Consequences of emergency were :

• Fundamental Rights were suspended.
• The power of Judiciary were limited.
• Press was censored.
• All the power were concentrated in the hands of Union Government.
• Civil liberties of the citizens were taken away.

Jayaprakash Narayan was born in 1902 CE in Bihar. He completed his higher education in American Universities for more than seven years. While studying in America, he became familiar with Socialist philosophy. On returning to India, he joined Congress as per the guidance of Nehru. He entered politics in 1974 and called for Total Revolution.As a result of this movement, the Janatha Party came to power. He was fondly called as Loknayak by the people.