Green Revolution refers to an increase in the production of food grains due to the use of high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, use of fertilisers, pesticides and irrigation facilities.
Reasons for implementation of Green Revolution:
At the time of independence, a large chunk of farmers were dependent on the monsoon due to which they faced innumerable problems in farming activities.
The technology and machinery used in farming were obsolete which resulted in low agricultural productivity.
Famines affected agricultural productivity in the 1940s.
Indian agriculture suffered from low productivity of food grains as more emphasis was given to cash crops during the colonial rule. This resulted in the shortage of food grains in India.
Indian farmers were dependent on landlords and rural money lenders to meet their credit requirements. Landlords and lenders exploited farmers.
The Green Revolution ensured food security to the Indian population. The motive behind implementing the Green Revolution was to increase agricultural productivity. This was possible because nearly 75% of the country's population was engaged in this sector. This resulted in a significant increase in the production of food grains.
Benefits to farmers:
Availability of inputs: It enabled farmers to use HYV seeds, pesticides, fertilisers and well-developed agricultural methods in areas where the supply of water was regular.
Scientific rotation of crops: It allowed the farmers to harvest more than two crops in a year through the initiation of short-term HYV seeds for major crops.
Credit facility: It provided farmers with sufficient credit facilities and package of inputs before the sowing season through government programmes.
Minimum support prices: It ensured farmers with reasonable prices for their produce through minimum support prices and prevented income fluctuations.

The Indian Independence Movement was a series of historic events with the ultimate aim of ending the British rule in India. The movement spanned from 1857 to 1947. The first nationalistic revolutionary movement for Indian independence emerged from Bengal. The Indian Independence Bill, which carves the independent nations of India and Pakistan out of the former Mogul Empire, comes into force at the stroke of midnight on August 15, 1947.

India's Foreign Policy - Determinants, Issues and Challenges. India's foreign policy is shaped by five broad factors viz. geography; strategic culture; India's requirements and goals; global and regional challenges; and resources

In taking decisions, the Security Council proceeds by voting. All members have one vote. However, the permanent members can vote in a negative manner so that even if all other permanent and non-permanent members vote for a particular decision, any permanent member’s negative vote can stall the decision. This negative vote is the Veto.

Two features of the European Union that make it an influential organisation are :

1. EU has evolved over time from an economic union to political union. It has its own flag, anthem, founding date and currency.
2. EU’s share of world trade is three times larger than that of the US.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi is the father of nation.

The issues of tension (negative aspects) between India and Bangladesh are :

1. Sharing of river waters of Ganga and Brahmaputra has been one of the biggest issues between India and Bangladesh.
2. Indian Government is not happy with Bangladesh’s refusal to act on unlawful immigration to India. It seems that the government of Bangladesh is deliberately not trying to stop these activities.
3. Bangladesh’s support to anti-Indian Islamic fundamentalist groups. Therefore there has been matter of conflicts between both countries.
4. Bangladesh refused to allow Indian troops to move through its territory to the North-East region.
5. Bangladesh refused to export natural gas to India and allow Myanmar to do so through its territory.

 Globalization enhances the student's ability to acquire and utilize knowledge. Globalization enhances the ability of learners to access, assess, adopt, and apply knowledge, to think independently to exercise appropriate judgment and to collaborate with others to make sense of new situations.

Charan Singh was of the opinion that cooperative farms would not succeed in India. ... Charan Singh left the Congress party in 1967, and formed his own political party, Bharatiya Kranti Dal. With the help and support of Raj Narain and Ram Manohar Lohia, he became Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh in 1967, and later in 1970.

The Consequences were:

 (i) According to Shah Commission nearly one lakh eleven thousand people were arrested under Preventive detention laws.

(ii) Torture and custodial deaths occurred, arbitrary relocation of poor people and compulsory sterilization.

 (iii) Formation of Janata Party and the defeat of congress in most of the states.

(iv) Democratic functioning were suspended and draconian measures were adopted.

The Consequences were:

 (i) According to Shah Commission nearly one lakh eleven thousand people were arrested under Preventive detention laws.

(ii) Torture and custodial deaths occurred, arbitrary relocation of poor people and compulsory sterilization.

 (iii) Formation of Janata Party and the defeat of congress in most of the states.

(iv) Democratic functioning were suspended and draconian measures were adopted.

The proclamation of Emergency in 1975 had far reaching consequences and affected every spheres of life such as:
(а) lt affected civil liberties by making large-scale arrests as well as citizen’s right to life and liberty were also taken away.
(b) It affected relationship between the executive and judiciary to bring new changes in the constitution by 42nd amendment like duration of legislatures, elections can be postponed by one year during an emergency.
(c) It affected Mass Media also i.e. ‘Press censorship’.

The circumstances which led to the proclamation of emergency were (any four) :

1. Bihar and Gujarat’s movement created an unrest in the country. Students were protesting against the price rise and against the established government in these states. Congress as ruling party failed to handle these protests. Leadership by influencial leaders further gave them a momentum against government.
2. Increases in Naxalite activities against government and violent nature troubled the government. Naxalite had an anti government view. Even harsh measures by government could not stop them.
3. George Fernandes gave a call for nationwide strike to all the railwaymen. Their demands were suppressed by the government. Shut down of such a big institution created havoc in the country.
4. Declaration of Indira Gandhi’s 1971 election invalid was a last straw. Jai Prakash Narayan organised a massive demonstration demanding her resignation. The situation was tense and emergency was declared on 25th June, 1975.
5. Call of complete revolution by Jai Prakash Narayan and unexpected people movement in Delhi.
6. Jai Prakash Narayan announced a nationwide satyagraha for resignation and asked the army, the police and government employees not to obey ‘illegal and immoral orders.’

Acts of dissent and resistance to the Emergency imposed in 1975:-

(i) Many political workers who were not arrested in the first wave, went ‘underground’ and organised protests against the government.

(ii) Newspapers like the Indian Express and the Statesman protested against censorship by leaving blank spaces where news items had been censored. Magazines like the Seminar and the Mainstream chose to close down rather than submit to censorship.

(iii)Many journalists were arrested for writing against the Emergency. Many
underground newsletters and leaflets were published to bypass censorship.

(iv)Kannada writer Shivarama Karanth, awarded with Padma Bhushan, and Hindi writer Fanishwarnath Renu, awarded with Padma Shri, returned their awards in protest against the suspension of democracy.

(v) The Parliament also brought in many new changes to the Constitution. In the background of the ruling of the Allahabad High Court in the Indira Gandhi case, an amendment was made declaring that elections of Prime Minister, President and Vice-President could not be challenged in the Court.

  Effects:-

(i) After the declaration of Emergency, the urban middle classes were generally happy over the fact that agitations came to an end and discipline was enforced on the government employees.

(ii) The poor and rural people also expected effective implementation of the welfare programmes that the government was promising.
Thus, different sections of society had different expectations from the emergency and also different viewpoints about it.
 

 Impact on relationship between the Executive and Judiciary : A conflict between the Parliament and Judiciary had been going on over different constitutional issues, the constitutional interpretations and political ideologies were getting mixed up. People close to the Prime Minister wanted a judiciary and the bureaucracy ‘committed’ to the vision of the executive and the legislature. During emergency exactly this happened. The government made extensive use of preventive detention. Large scale arrests were made. Arrested workers could not challenge their arrest through habeas corpus petitions. Although some High Courts gave judgments allowing courts to entertain a writ of habeas corpus but the Supreme Court over-ruled the High Courts and accepted the government’s plea. This judgment was one of the most controversial judgments of the Supreme Court which had closed the doors of judiciary for the citizens.

Indira Gandhi’s imposition of National emergency in 1975 cannot be justified.

1. Emergency was imposed not because ‘India was in danger’ but because ‘Indira was in danger’.

2. Law and order situation was mostly normal.

3. There was no threat to the unity and integrity of the nation

The circumstances which led to the proclamation of emergency were :

1. Bihar and Gujarat’s movement created an unrest in the country. Students were protesting against the price rise and against the established government in these states. Congress as ruling party failed to handle these protests. Leadership by influencial leaders further gave them a momentum against government.
2. Increases in Naxalite activities against government and violent nature troubled the government. Naxalite had an anti government view. Even harsh measures by government could not stop them.
3. George Fernandes gave a call for nationwide strike to all the railwaymen. Their demands were suppressed by the government. Shut down of such a big institution created havoc in the country.
4. Declaration of Indira Gandhi’s 1971 election invalid was a last straw. Jai Prakash Narayan organised a massive demonstration demanding her resignation. The situation was tense and emergency was declared on 25th June, 1975.
5. Call of complete revolution by Jai Prakash Narayan and unexpected people movement in Delhi.
6. Jai Prakash Narayan announced a nationwide satyagraha for resignation and asked the army, the police and government employees not to obey ‘illegal and immoral orders.’

1. The landmark judgement was delivered on 24^th April 1973 by a razor-thin majority of 7:6 wherein the majority held that any provision of the Indian Constitution can be amended by the Parliament in order to fulfil its socio-economic obligations that were guaranteed to the citizens as given in the Preamble, provided that such amendment did not change the Constitution’s basic structure. The minority, however, in their dissenting opinion, were wary of giving the Parliament unlimited amending power.
2. The court held that the 24^th Constitutional Amendment was entirely valid. But it found the first part of the 25^th Constitutional Amendment to be intra vires and the second part of the same ultra vires.

Elements of growing consensus

(i) Agreement on new economic policies : Most parties were in support of the new economic policies and believed that these policies would lead the country to prosperity and a status of economic power in the world.

(ii) Acceptance of the political and social claims of the backward castes : Political parties had recognized that the social and political claims of the Backward Castes need to be accepted and support reservation of seats for OBC in education and employment.

(iii) Acceptance of the role of State level parties in governance of the country: State level parties were sharing power at the national level and had played a central role in the country's politics.

(iv) Emphasis on pragmatic considerations rather than ideological positions and political alliances without ideological agreement as most parties of the NDA did not agree with the 'Hindutava' ideology of the BJP. Yet, they came together to form a government and remained in power for a full term.