(i) Most abrupt, unplanned and tragic transfer of population that human history has known. There were killings and atrocities on both sides of the border. Cities like Amritsar and Kolkata divided into communal zones. People were forced to abandon their homes and move across borders, they went through immense sufferings.

 (ii) Thousands of women were abducted on both sides of the border, they were forced to change the religion and were forced into marriage. Many children were separated from their parents. 

 (iii) The Partition was a division of properties, liabilities and assets as well as a political division of the country and the administrative apparatus. 

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DISINTEGRATION OF USSR
The most important factor for the fall of the Soviet Union was a lack of proper leadership. There was no clear cut line between the party and government as there was one political party which was wielding power.
Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies of ‘Perestroika(restructuring) and glasnost (openness); and ‘Glasnost’ proved to be disastrous for the economic health of the USSR.
Anti-communists forces of the Soviet Union had the support of the USA and Western European countries. Gorbachev due to his liberal policies did not try to uproot these forces.
No effort was ever made to create a socialist human being and a socialist culture.  

The disintegration of the Soviet Union did not make much difference for countries like India because India has maintained good relations with all the post-communist countries. It has still very strong and good relations with Russia which is a successor state at the international level as is clear from the following facts :

(i) Indo-Russian relations are embedded in a history of trust and common interests and are matched by popular perceptions. Indian heroes from Rajkapoor to Amitabh Bachchan are household names in Russia and many post-Soviet countries.

(ii) Russia and India share a vision of a multipolar world order i.e., the coexistence of several powers in the international system, collective security, greater regionalism and independent foreign policy for all countries and other matters.

(iii) More than 80 bilateral agreements have been signed between India and Russia as a part ofthe Indo-Russian Strategic Agreement of 2001.

“China followed its own path in introducing a market economy”. Four suitable arguments are:-
 a. The Chinese did not go for shock therapy but opened their economy step by step. 
b. The privatization of agriculture began in 1982 and was followed by the privatization of industry in 1998. 
c. Trade barriers were eliminated only in special economic zones (SEZs) where foreign investors could set up enterprises. 

d. In China, the state played and continues to play a central role in setting up a market economy. 

a. While the ASEAN region as a whole is a much smaller economy compared to the US, the EU, and Japan. Its economy is growing much faster than all these. This accounts for the growth in its influence both in the region and beyond. 

b. ASEAN has focused on creating a “Free trade Area for investment, labour, and services. The US and China have already moved fast to negotiate FTAs with ASEAN. 

c. ASEAN is rapidly growing into a very important regional organization. Its vision 2020 has defined an outward-looking role for ASEAN in the international community. This builds on the existing ASEAN policy to encourage negotiation over conflict in the region. Thus ASEAN has mediated the end of Cambodian conflict and the east Timor Crisis. 

d. The current economy strength of ASEAN, especially its economy relevance as a trading and investment partner to the growing Asian economy such as India and China, makes this an attractive proposition

a. While the ASEAN region as a whole is a much smaller economy compared to the US, the EU, and Japan. Its economy is growing much faster than all these. This accounts for the growth in its influence both in the region and beyond. 
b. ASEAN has focused on creating a “Free trade Area for investment, labour, and services. The US and China have already moved fast to negotiate FTAs with ASEAN. 
c. ASEAN is rapidly growing into a very important regional organization. Its vision 2020 has defined an outward-looking role for ASEAN in the international community. This builds on the existing ASEAN policy to encourage negotiation over conflict in the region. Thus ASEAN has mediated the end of Cambodian conflict and the east Timor Crisis. 
d. The current economy strength of ASEAN, especially its economy relevance as a trading and investment partner to the growing Asian economy such as India and China, makes this an attractive proposition. 

(a). Israeli-India relationship has reached new heights over the last few years. 

(i) Israel is the second most important defense partner of India after Russia. 

(ii) The two nations have started cooperation in various fields like cultural exchange, security and defense, counterterrorism, space research, water and energy and agricultural development. 

(iii) Centers of Excellence that Israel has opened up, cooperation in the field of agriculture can reach new heights. 

(iv) Water Harvesting is also an area where Israel stands out as a unique partner of India.

Israeli-India relationship has reached new heights over the last few years. 
(i) Israel is the second most important defense partner of India after Russia. 
(ii) The two nations have started cooperation in various fields like cultural exchange, security and defense, counterterrorism, space research, water and energy, and agricultural development. 
(iii) Centers of Excellence that Israel has opened up, cooperation in the field of agriculture can reach new heights. 
(iv) Water Harvesting is also an area where Israel stands out as a unique partner of India.

“The South Asian experience of democracy has expanded the global imagination of democracy”. 
This statement can be explained by following examples:
People of South Asian countries participate in the aspiration of democracy. There is widespread support for democracy in all these countries. Ordinary citizens, rich as well as poor and belonging to different view the idea of democracy positively and support the institutions of representative democracy.

For example- India is the largest democratic country in the world. People of South Asian countries prefer democracy over any other system of governance and believe that democracy is suitable for their country.
For example- Initially, there was a monarchy in Nepal but at present there is democracy. 

The Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 was a direct and dangerous confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War and was the moment when the two superpowers came closest to nuclear conflict.

Cuba was an ally of USSR. It received financial and diplomatic help from USSR. In 1962, the Soviet Union decided to convert Cube into Russian base and planted nuclear missiles. The President of the USA ordered the American warships to intercept any Soviet ships heading to Cuba in order to warn the USSR. Such turn of events brought the two countries closest to the nuclear war.

Political Consequences

• Globalisation results in an erosion of state capacity i.e. by reducing the ability of government to do what they want to do.
• It gives way to a more minimalist state that performs certain core functions such as the maintenance of law and order, and the security of its citizens.
• In place of the state the market becomes the prime determinant of economic and social priorities.
• Globalisation does not always reduce state capacity. The primacy of the state continues to be unchallenged basis of political community.
• State capacity has received boost as a consequence of globalisation, with enhanced technologies available at the disnosal of the state to collect information about its citizens.

 India’s Nuclear Policy:
1. India advocates no first use and reiterates India’s commitment to global verifiable on non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament loading to a nuclear weapon free world.
2. Pt. Nehru always promoted ’ science and technology to build
a modern India, i.e. initiated nuclear programme in the late 1940s under the guidance of Homi J. Bhoba.
3. India was against nuclear weapons, hence pleaded many nuclear disarmament with superpowers.
4. India always considered NPT as discriminatory and refused to sign on it.
5. Even India’s first Nuclear Test in May 1974 was termed as a peaceful explosion and India argued to use nuclear power for peaceful purposes only.

• Under article 352, if the president is satisfied that there exists a grave situation, wherein the security of the country is threatened on the grounds of wars, external aggression or armed rebellion, he can proclaim emergency to that effect.
• Emergency can be declared over the complete territory of India or any part thereof.
• President can declare emergency only on the written advice of the cabinet
• A special majority is required to approve an emergency resolution.
• Once approved, emergency shall operate for a maximum period of not more than six months.
• Lok Sabha has the power to disapprove the operation of national emergency at any time, if not less than 1/10th members of Lok Sabha in writing to the speaker, if house is in session, or to the president, then speaker or president as the case may be, shall convene a special session of Lok Sabha within 14 days and if such a resolution is passed, president shall revoke national emergency.

NITI Aayog aims to achieve the following Objectives:

1. To design strategic long term policy and programs.

2. To foster Cooperative federalism by involving states in the policy formulation.

Syndicate was the group of powerful leaders in the Congress Party. Lal Bahadur Shastri and later Indira Gandhi were made Prime Minister with the support received from the Syndicate. This group had a decisive say in Indira Gandhi’s first cabinet and in policy formulation and implementation of the government. After the split in the Congress, the leaders of the Syndicate stayed with the Congress (O) but were defeated n the subsequent General Elections. 

Most of the mainstream media newspapers and magazines were under the wrath of Emergency. The scissors of censors cut through big publishers like Himmat, Janata, Frontier, Sadhana, Swarajya among many others. Some were threatened to be thrown out of publications and others were put in jail.

Working of democracy in Pakistan :
(i) After Pakistan framed its first constitution, General Ayub Khan took over the administration of the country and soon got himself elected. He had to quit the office when there were agitations and dissatisfaction in his rule. This gave a way to the military to takeover the government of the country.

(ii) After 1971, an elected government was formed under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, which was removed by General Zia-ul-Haq in 1977.

(iii) Again in 1982, in Pakistan, by a pro-democracy protest, democratic government was established in 1988, under the leadership of Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif. Later on, history repeated and General Pervez Musharraf again took the command in 1999 and got elected in 2005.

(iv) It is, therefore, said that military rule and ‘ democracy are two sides of the coin in Pakistan.
Though Pakistan’s politics centered around the competition between People’s party and Muslim League, Several factors have contributed to Pakistan’s failure in building a stable democracy.

Panchsheel is the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence was adopted by India’s Prime Minister Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai.

The white revolution involved the operation flood that enhanced the production of milk and also resulted in the increased animal input that went into the dairy industry. The White revolution saw a huge increase in the productivity of the dairy industry.

The Congress Parliamentary Board met on July 11, 1969, to discuss the presidential candidate. The Syndicate had already decided on nominating Sanjiva Reddy, whose affinity to them was well known. Mrs Gandhi was naturally loath to do so. At the meeting, she suggested nominating the veteran dalit leader, Jagjivan Ram. When this was shot down, she asked that they postpone a decision to allow more time for arriving at a consensus. Nijalingappa, however, forced a vote in the six-member Parliamentary Board. Mrs Gandhi was outvoted four to two.

Even as a brooding Indira Gandhi left for Bangalore, a fresh opening presented itself. The Vice-President V V Giri announced that he would contest the presidential elections as an independent candidate. Mrs Gandhi knew that before she could support Giri against her own party's nominee, she would have to regain the initiative within the party. This she did first by forcing Morarji Desai out of the Cabinet and then by nationalizing banks. She also went ahead and filed the nomination for Sanjiva Reddy, though she refrained from issuing a whip to Congress MPs.

The Syndicate realized that Mrs Gandhi might yet come out in support of Giri. Nijalingappa took a fatal misstep by approaching the main opposition parties, Swatantra and Jana Sangh, to cast their second preference vote for Reddy (the opposition's candidate was C D Deshmukh). Mrs Gandhi seized the opportunity to denounce Nijalingappa's move. Yet, she did not formally reveal her preference until the night before the elections, when she called on her party to 'vote according to conscience'.

V V Giri won the poll by a narrow margin. The voting figures showed that a majority of Congress members had actually voted for Reddy. Giri had edged through with a minority of Congress votes and support from a curious combination of opposition groups.

The Congress Parliamentary Board met on July 11, 1969, to discuss the presidential candidate. The Syndicate had already decided on nominating Sanjiva Reddy, whose affinity to them was well known. Mrs Gandhi was naturally loath to do so. At the meeting, she suggested nominating the veteran dalit leader, Jagjivan Ram. When this was shot down, she asked that they postpone a decision to allow more time for arriving at a consensus. Nijalingappa, however, forced a vote in the six-member Parliamentary Board. Mrs Gandhi was outvoted four to two.

Even as a brooding Indira Gandhi left for Bangalore, a fresh opening presented itself. The Vice-President V V Giri announced that he would contest the presidential elections as an independent candidate. Mrs Gandhi knew that before she could support Giri against her own party's nominee, she would have to regain the initiative within the party. This she did first by forcing Morarji Desai out of the Cabinet and then by nationalizing banks. She also went ahead and filed the nomination for Sanjiva Reddy, though she refrained from issuing a whip to Congress MPs.

The Syndicate realized that Mrs Gandhi might yet come out in support of Giri. Nijalingappa took a fatal misstep by approaching the main opposition parties, Swatantra and Jana Sangh, to cast their second preference vote for Reddy (the opposition's candidate was C D Deshmukh). Mrs Gandhi seized the opportunity to denounce Nijalingappa's move. Yet, she did not formally reveal her preference until the night before the elections, when she called on her party to 'vote according to conscience'.

V V Giri won the poll by a narrow margin. The voting figures showed that a majority of Congress members had actually voted for Reddy. Giri had edged through with a minority of Congress votes and support from a curious combination of opposition groups.

We need international organisations like UN:

• To resolve the conflicts and differences Among the nations.
• To prescribe rules, regulations and mechanisms for cooperation to avoid mistrust and mismanagement.

Non - alignment is neither neutrality, nor isolation nor non commitment. It is because the member countries of the movement did particiate in world events. So they did not reamin isolated. They were non committed to any military blocs but maintained friedly relations with the countries of the First and the Second World. NAM came forward to help the underdeveloed and developing newly independent countries.

The major issue which led to the formal split of the Congress Party in 1969 was the differences between Indira Gandhi and the ‘syndicate'. Its discussed below:

(i) She launched a series of initiatives to give the government policy a Left orientation. She got the Congress working committee to adopt a Ten Point Programme in May 1967. This programme included social control of banks, nationalisation of General Insurance, ceiling on urban property and income, land reforms and other items. While (syndicate) leaders approved this left wing programme, they had serious reservations about the same.

(ii) The factional rivalry between the syndicate and Indira Gandhi came in the open in the Presidential election in 1969. The official Congress candidate was N. Sanjeeva Reddy. Indira Gandhi, however, encouraged V.V. Giri, to file nomination as an independent candidate. The Congress President issued a whip but Indira Gandhi called for a ‘conscience vote’ leading to V.V. Giri victory.

(iii) In the meantime, Indira Gandhi also announced the nationalisation of fourteen leading private banks and the abolition of privy purses which led differences between Indira Gandhi and the Finance Minister Morarji Desai resulting in Desai leaving the government.

These events led to the split in the Congress in 1969 into two - Congress (Organisation) and Congress (Requisitionists).

Indira Gandhi had no option except to impose emergency as 1. She felt that frequent agitation and strikes by Opposition are not good for democracy. 2. She felt that opposition was not allowing the Govt. to function in normal manner -leading to political instability, 3. She felt that the judiciary was acting as a hurdle to her govt. 4. She alleged that subversive forces were not allowing her govt. to implement the progressive programs, for example, 20 point program, 5. She alleged that subversive forces were attempting to overthrow her government through extra constitutional means.

No need to impose emergency 1. Popular struggle against the government - a legacy of our national struggle for freedom. 2. The Bihar and Gujarat movements were mostly non-violent. Very few cases registered against the detainees. 3. Law and order situation was mostly normal. Emergency was an overreaction on the part of government. 4. There was no threat to the unity and integrity of the nation. 5. Indira Gandhi misused an extraordinary constitutional provision meant for saving the nation to remain in power