1. Opposition to Cold War
2. Opposition to Military/Security Alliances
3. Non-involvement in Power Politics
4. Peaceful Co-existence and Non-interference
5. Independence in Foreign Relation
6. A Policy of Action and not Isolationalism
7. Non-alignment is neither a Diplomatic Policy nor a Legal Status

The relations were marked with conflicts and cooperation as described below :

(i) There was dispute over Kashmir immediately after the partition. This led to a proxy war.

(ii) The Kashmir conflict did not prevent cooperation between two countries. Both cooperated to restore women abducted during partition to their original families. A dispute over sharing of river waters was resolved with the signing of Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan.

(iii) A war broke out in 1965 in the Rann of Kutch and Jammu and Kashmir which ended with UN intervention. India and Pakistan had signed Tashkent Agreement which was brokered by the Soviet Union.

(iv) In 1971 another war had broken out between India and Pakistan over the question of East Pakistan, where India extended moral and material support to the freedom struggle  in Bagladesh. As a result of the war Bangladesh came into existence as a free country.

India has maintained good relations with all the post-communist countries but its relations with Russia are an important aspect of India's foreign policy. The relations during the Cold War were as given below:

(i) Economic: Russia gave aid and technical assistance for steel plants like Bhilai, Bokaro,Visakhapatnam and machinery plants like Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. The Soviet Union accepted Indian currency for trade when India was short of foreign exchange.

(ii) Political: The Soviet Union supported India's stand on Kashmir issue in the UN. It supported India during the war with Pakistan in 1971.

(iii) Military: India received most of its military hardware from the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union entered into various agreements allowing India to jointly produce military equipment.

(iv) Culture: Hindi films and Indian culture became popular in the Soviet Union. A large number of Indian writers and artists visited the USSR.

Reform movements seek to change something specific about the social structure. Examples include anti-nuclear groups, Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), and the National Action Committee on the Status of Women (NAC). Revolutionary movements seek to completely change every aspect of society. These would include Cuban 26th of July Movement (under Fidel Castro), the 1960s counterculture movement, as well as anarchist collectives. 

Increasing participation of the people in the democratic politics of the country is broadly characterized as a democratic upsurge. Based on this principle, social scientists have characterized three democratic upsurges in the post-independence history of India. The ‘First Democratic Upsurge’ could be attributed from the 1950s till 1970s which was based on the participation of Indian adult voters to the democratic politics both at the centre and in states. Falsifying the western myth that the success of democracy requires modernization, urbanization, education and access to media, the successful holding of elections to both Lok Sabha and legislative assemblies all across states on the principle of parliamentary democracy were the testimony of India’s first democratic upsurge.

The Arab Spring was a series of anti-government protests, uprisings, and armed rebellions that spread across much of the Arab world in the early 2010s. It began in response to oppressive regimes and a low standard of living, starting with protests in Tunisia. The Arab Spring is a movement in the Middle East that aims to end authoritarian rule and corruption, while trying to gain democracy and economic opportunity.

The Subansiri Lower Dam, officially named Subansiri Lower Hydroelectric Project (SLHEP), is an under construction gravity dam on the Subansiri River in NorthEastern India. It is located 2.3 km (1.4 mi) upstream of Gerukamukh village in Dhemaji District and Lower Subansiri District on the border of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Described as a run-of-the-river project by NHPC Limited, the Project is expected to supply 2,000 MW of power when completed. The project has experienced several problems during construction to include landslides, re-design and opposition. It was expected to be complete in 2018. It is notable that, if completed as planned, it will be the largest hydroelectric project in India.

As of early 2019, work was not progressing on either of the two major dam projects in the Assam region, the Dibang and the Lower Subansiri.

During the Cold War years, India propogated the policy of non-alignment. It, however, maintained close ties the Soviet Union. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the enviorment changed and India found herself friendless in an hostile international scene. At the same time, India's policy of liberalisation and globalisation led to impressive economic growth in recent years. This has made the country an attractive economic partner for a number of countries including the US. As a result of two new factors i.e., technological dimension and the role of the Indian-American diaspora a new relationship emerged. At present about 300,000 Indians work in Silicon Valley and 15 per cent of all high-tech start-ups are by Indian Americans.

There are different alternatives before India that can be adopted in relations with the US. These are to maintain aloofness from the US, to take advantage of US hegemony or to establish a coalition of developing countries to reduce US dominance. Whatever policy India adopts, the fact remains that the relationship with USA has changed and the two countries have come closer to each other.

The DMK won power after having led a massive anti-Hindi agitation by students against the centre on the issue of imposition of Hindi as the official language. This was the first time any non-Congress party had secured a majority of its own in any State. In the other eight States, coalition governments consisting of different non-Congress parties were formed. A popular saying was that one could take a train from Delhi to Howrah and not pass through a single Congress ruled State. It was a strange feeling for those who were used to seeing the Congress in power

Lohiya advocated Chouburja Rajneeti in which he opines four pillars of politics as well as socialism: Centre, Region, District and Village – all are linked with each other. Giving consideration to affirmative action, Lohiya argued that the policy of affirmative action should not only be for the downtrodden but also for the women and the non-religious minorities. Based on the premise of Democratic Socialism and Chouburja Rajneeti, Lohiya supported a ‘Party of Socialism’ as an attempt of merging all political parties. The Party of Socialism according to Lohiya should have three symbols, viz., Spade [prepared to make efforts], Vote [power of voting], and Prison [Willingness to make sacrifices].

Composition of Constituent Assembly

• Initially, the number of members was 389. After partition, some of the members went to Pakistan and the number came down to 299. Out of this, 229 were from the British provinces and 70 were nominated from the princely states.
• Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the first temporary chairman of the Constituent Assembly. Later, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President and its Vice President was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee. BN Rau was the constitutional advisor.

26 January 1950 was specially chosen as the date of enforcement of the Constitution because it was on this day "Purna Swaraj" day was celebrated in 1930. following the event on December 31, 1929, at Lahore Session of Indian National Congress, when Nehru hoisted the Tricolour and demanded "Purna Swaraj".

The Framers of the American Constitution were visionaries. They designed our Constitution to endure. They sought not only to address the specific challenges facing the nation during their lifetimes, but to establish the foundational principles that would sustain and guide the new nation into an uncertain future. The primary goal of the Framers was to create an effective limited government and protect the rights of citizens.

The factors responsible for Disintegration of U.S.S.R:

(i) Internal weaknesses of Soviet political and economic institutions.

(ii) Economic stagnation for many years led to severe consumer shortages.

(iii) Soviet Union became stagnant in an administrative and political sense as well.

(iv) The Communist Party that had ruled for 70 years was not accountable to the people.

(v) Ordinary people were alienated by slow and stifling administration and rampant corruption.

(vi) The inability of the system to correct mistakes it had made and the unwillingness to allow more openness in government and the centralisation of authority in vast land.

The Soviet system gave primacy to the state and the institution of the party. This system centred around the Communist Party and no other political party was allowed. The economy was planned and controlled by the state.

 Features of the Soviet system:

 (i) The Soviet System was very bureaucratic and authoritarian.

 (ii) Lack of democracy and the absence of freedom of speech.

 (iii) Tight control over all institutions and was unaccountable to the people.

 (iv) Russia dominated everything and people from other regions felt neglected and often suppressed. 

Challenges faced by the Election commission of India before first General
elections: -
1. Delimitation of Electoral constituencies- free and fair elections
2. Absence of electoral rolls. Preparing the election rolls was a huge task
as many citizens were eligible to vote.
3. Illiterate population- did not know details like wife of and daughter
of…15% voters illiterate out of 17 crore eligible voters because of
which special method of voting was needed.
4. Mistake in electoral rolls-Large population and voters to hold free and
fair elections. Large number of staff and infrastructure for the first time 

The World Health Organisation (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that looks into matters of public health. Established on April 7th, 1948, its headquarters is located in Geneva, Switzerland. 

At the 1945 United Nations Conference on International Organization (also known as the San Francisco Conference), Szeming Sze, a delegate from the Republic of China (modern-day Taiwan), proposed the creation of an international health organization under the auspices of the new United Nations. Alger Hiss, the Secretary-General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organization. 

We need international organizations like the UN :

1. To resolve the conflicts and differences among the nations.
2. To prescribe rules, regulations, and mechanisms for cooperation to avoid mistrust and mismanagement.
3. To calculate the bias-free data of all the countries to get to know their condition and suggest some advices.

EVOLUTION OF THE UN

(i) The UN was founded as a successor to the League of Nations. It was established in 1945.
(ii) The UN was set up through the signing of the UN Charter by 51 Nations.
(iii) It was formed with the help that it would act to stop conflict and wars.

(iv) By 2006, UN had 192 members. These included almost all independent states.

According to the Constitution, during the Emergency, the Central Government has special powers. During the Emergency, the Government did the following:

• Protests and agitations by government employees were banned.
• Media were strictly controlled.
• Fundamental Rights of the citizens were suspended. Even the courts could not enforce article 32.
• A number of preventive arrests of leaders were made. By doing all these things, the democratic set-up was seriously shaken.

The media could publish only things the government approved. Protesting against this, Newspapers like Indian Express and Statesman published their papers leaving some columns blank. Many journalists were under preventive detention. Many Opposition leaders were also kept in preventive custody. The argument for keeping them in jail was preventing any possible violence. Many leaders went underground. The suspension of article 32 was like closing the doors of justice on people. People could not even file ‘Habeas Corpus’. Later article 42 was also amended. We can easily say that the Emergency adversely affected the people in many ways.

The facts mentioned below make the European Union a highly influential regional organisation :

1. It has its own flag, anthem, founding date and currency.

2. It has forum of a foreign and security policy in its dealings with other nations.

3. The EU is the world’s biggest economy with a GDP of more than $12 trillion in 2005 slightly larger than that of the United States.

4. Its currency, the euro, poses a threat to the dominance of the US dollar.

5. Its share of world trade is three times larger than that of the United States. Its economic power gives it influence over its closest neighbours as well as in Asia and Africa.

6. It role as an important bloc in international economic organisations such as the World Trade Organisation.

7. It has political and diplomatic influence. Two members of EU–Britain and France-are permanent members of UN Security Council. Some of its members are non-permanent members of UN Security Council. Its use of diplomacy, economic investments and negotiations rather than coercion have been more effective in dialogue with China on human rights and environmental degradation.

8. Its military power is the second largest in the world. Britain and France have nuclear arsenals.

9. It is the world’s second most important source of space and communication technology.

Thus, as supranational organisation, the EU is able to intervene in economic, political and social areas of the world.

Pakistan and Bangladesh have experienced both civilian and military rulers, with Bangladesh remaining democracy, in the Post Cold War period. Pakistan began the post cold war period with successive democratic governments under Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif respectively. But it suffered a military coup in 1999 and-has been run by a military regime since then. Till 2006, Nepal was a constitutional monarchy with the danger of the king taking over executive powers. In 2006, a successful uprising led to restoration of democracy and reduced the king to a nominal position, from the experience of Bangladesh and Nepal, we can say that democracy is becoming an accepted norm in the entire region of South Asia.