The Berlin wall symbolised the division between the capitalist and the communist world. Hence, its fall is considered as the end of bipolarity as it was the beginning of the end of the communist bloc.

1. End of Cold War confrontations:With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the ideological dispute that socialism was better than capitalism or vice versa was over. As a result of it, the arms race too came to an end.

2. Change in power relations: The US became the sole superpower. Capitalist economy was now the dominant economic system internationally. World Bank and International Monetary Fund became powerful advisors to countries since they gave loans for their transition to capitalism.

3.  Some new countries emerged on the international scene. The Baltic and East European states wanted to join the European Union. They became part of North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. Thus, many new states emerged, each with its own identity, interests and economic and political problems.

A N S W E R

The term Non-Alignment was coined by Jawaharlal Nehru in his speech in 1954 in Colombo, Sri Lanka. After independence, India did not want to be a part of either of these blocs led by the USSR or USA. It chose to follow a policy of non-alignment.

• The ‘Kashmir issue’ is always seen as a major issue between India and Pakistan.
• Jammu and Kashmir comprises three social and political regions. Jammu-a mix of foothills and plains, Kashmir- heart of Kashmir region; Ladakh-mountainous region with very little population which is equally divided between Buddhists and Muslims.
• Before 1947, Jammu and Kashmir was a Princely State. The state was having majority population of Muslims but Hari Singh was a Hindu ruler of the state.
• In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators from its side to capture Kashmir. This forced Hari Singh to ask for Indian military help.
• Indian Army successfully drove out infiltrators from Kashmir valley and Hari Singh signed an Instrument of Accession1 with the Government of India.
• It was agreed that once the situation will be normalised, the views of the people of Jammu and Kashmir will be ascertained about their future and India agreed to maintain the autonomy of Jammu and Kashmir.

External and Internal Disputes

• Externally, Pakistan has always claimed that Kashmir valley should be part of Pakistan.
• Pakistan sponsored a tribal invasion of
  the State of 1947 and consequence of it, a part of the state came under Pakistani control.
• India claims this area under illegal occupation whereas Pakistan describes this area as ‘Azad Kashmir.’
• Internally, there is a dispute about the status of Kashmir within the Indian Union.
•  Article 370 gives greater autonomy to J&K compared to other state of India. State has its own Constitution.
• The special attention provokes two opposite reactions.
• A section of people outside J&K feels that Article 370 should therefore be revoked and J&K should be like any other state in India.
• Another section, mostly Kashmiries, believe that autonomy conferred by Article 370 is not enough.

Politics Since 1948

• Between 1953 and 1974, the Congress Party exercised a lot of influence on the politics of the state.
• National Conference remained in power with the active support of Congress for some time but later it merged with the Congress. Thus, Congress gained direct control over the government of the state.
• In 1974, Indira Gandhi reached an agreement with Sheikh Abdullah and he became the Chief Minister of the State.
• Farooq Abdullah succeeded after death of his father as Chief Minister in 1982.
• Farooq Abdullah was soon dismissed by the Governor, his dismissal due to the intervention of the centre generated a feeling of resentment in Kashmir.
• Ups and down in state politics continued till 1986 when National Conference agreed to have an
  electoral alliance with the Congress.

Insurgency and Effect

• In 1987 assembly election the National Conference-Congress alliance gained a massive victory and Farooq Abdullah returned as Chief Minister.
• By 1989, the state had come in grip of a militant movement mobilised around the cause of a separate Kashmir nation.
• Throughout the period from 1990, J&K experienced violence at the hands of the insurgents and through army action.
• In 2002 J&K experienced a fair election in which National Conference was replaced by People’s Democratic Party (PDP)-Congress coalition government.

Separatism

• Separatism surfaced in Kashmir ’rom 1989 and is made up of various strands.
• One strand of separatists wanted a separate Kashmir nation, independent of India and Pakistan.
• Jammu and Kashmir is one of th; living examples of plural society and politics.
• Despite diversities and divergence on the one hand and the continued situation of conflict on the other, the plural and secular culture of the state has remained largely intact.

Punjab

• The decade of 1980s witnessed major developments in the State of Punjab.
• Social composition of the state was changed first with partition and later-after the carving out of Haryam and Himachal Pradesh.
• The Akali Dal, which was formed in 1920 as the political wing of the Sikhs, had led the movement for the formation of a ‘Punjabi Suba.’
• Punjab had to wait till 1966 to be reorganised on linguistic lines for the creation of a Punjabi speaking state.

Political Context

• After the reorganisation, the Akalis came to power in 1967 and then in 1977.
• During the 1970s a section of Akalis began to demand political autonomy for the region. This was reflected in a resolution passed in a conference at Anandpur Sahib in 1973.

Major changes country witnessed at the time of Fourth General Elections’

(i) Two prime ministers died in quick succession.

(ii) The period was fraught with grave economic crises.

(iii) Widespread drought and decline in agricultural production.

(iv) Serious food shortage.

(v) Depletion of foreign exchange reserves.

(vi) Drop in industrial production and exports.

(vii) Sharp rise in military expenditures.

(viii) Diversion of resource from planning and economic development.

The major issue which led to the formal split of the Congress Party in 1969 was the differences between Indira Gandhi and the ‘syndicate'. Its discussed below:

(i) She launched a series of initiatives to give the government policy a Left orientation. She got the Congress working committee to adopt a Ten Point Programme in May 1967. This programme included social control of banks, nationalisation of General Insurance, ceiling on urban property and income, land reforms and other items. While (syndicate) leaders approved this left wing programme, they had serious reservations about the same.

(ii) The factional rivalry between the syndicate and Indira Gandhi came in the open in the Presidential election in 1969. The official Congress candidate was N. Sanjeeva Reddy. Indira Gandhi, however, encouraged V.V. Giri, to file nomination as an independent candidate. The Congress President issued a whip but Indira Gandhi called for a ‘conscience vote’ leading to V.V. Giri victory.

(iii) In the meantime, Indira Gandhi also announced the nationalisation of fourteen leading private banks and the abolition of privy purses which led differences between Indira Gandhi and the Finance Minister Morarji Desai resulting in Desai leaving the government.

These events led to the split in the Congress in 1969 into two - Congress (Organisation) and Congress (Requisitionists).

1.The social dominance of the military, clergy and landowning aristocracy has led to the frequent overthrow of elected governments and the establishment of military governments.

2. Pakistan’s conflict with India has made the pro-military groups more powerful.These groups have often siad that political parties and democracy in Pakistan are flawed and Pakistan security would be harmed by selfish- minded parties and chotic democracy.

3.The lack of genuine international support for democratic rule in Pakistan has further encouraged the military to continue its dominance. 

4. The United States and other western countries have also encouraged the military’s authoritarian rule for their own reasons such as fear of ‘global Islamic terrorism’ and apprehension of falling of Pakistan’s nuclear weapons into the hands of terrorist groups. Thus, they see military regime as protector of their interests in West Asia and South Asia.

a ns w e r

Jawahar lal Nehru

Jawahar lal Nehru was the architect of the Non-Alignment Movement. The five principles were: Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty. Mutual non-aggression.

Origin of the United Nations Organisation (UNO):

It was the Atlantic Charter of 1941 which guaranteed the principle of equality of states and their freedom to choose any form of government that can be considered the origin of the UNO.

In 1942 the representatives of twenty-six countries put their signatures to the United Nations Declaration drawn on the lines of Atlantic Charter.

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Introduction
 An international organization is an organization with an international membership, scope, or presence.  International Organisation is a specialisation within the Political Science master programme. It covers various aspects of global governance from multiple social and political science perspectives.  To study international organisation (IO) is to study the norms, rules, and institutions that shape relations between states and contacts across state borders, and how they affect people’s lives, the destiny of nations, and the fate of the planet.

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<a data-ved="2ahUKEwiz5LH8n-TtAhUZlEsFHZoDAy4QFjABegQIBRAC" href="https://www.slideshare.net/sourabharay/international-organization-55132044" ping="/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://www.slideshare.net/sourabharay/international-organization-55132044&ved=2ahUKEwiz5LH8n-TtAhUZlEsFHZoDAy4QFjABegQIBRAC" rel="noopener" target="_blank">International organization - SlideShare</a>

 An international organization is an organization with an international membership, scope, or presence.  International Organisation is a specialisation within the Political Science master programme. It covers various aspects of global governance from multiple social and political science perspectives.  To study international organisation (IO) is to study the norms, rules, and institutions that shape relations between states and contacts across state borders, and how they affect people’s lives, the destiny of nations, and the fate of the planet.

The economy of the Soviet Union was based on state ownership of the means of production, collective farming, and industrial manufacturing. The highly centralized Soviet-type economic planning was managed by the administrative-command system.

Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990. After attempts made by several countries to persuade Iraq to leave Kuwait failed, the UNO decided to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi occupation by using military force. A huge coalition force of 660,000 troops from 34 countries fought against Iraq and defeated it. This war came to be popularly known as the Gulf War.

• The social dominance of the military, clergy and landowning aristocracy has led to the frequent overthrow of elected governments and the establishment of the military government.
• The lack of genuine international support for democratic rule in Pakistan has further encouraged the military to continue its dominance which contributed to instability of democracy.

The consensus that emerged among most political parties in India in spite of severe competition and conflicts:
(a) First, agreement of new economic policies: While many groups are opposed to the new economic policies, most political parties are in support of the new economic policies. Most parties believe that these policies would lead the country to prosperity and a status of economic power in the world.
(b) Second, acceptance of the political and social claims of the backward castes: Political parties have recognized that the social and political claims of the backward castes need to be accepted. As a result all political parties now support reservation of seats for the backward classes in the education and employment. Political parties are also willing to ensure that the OBCs get adequate share of power.
(c) Emphasis on pragmatic considerations rather than ideological positions and political alliances without political agreement-coalition politics has shifted the focus of political parties from ideological differences to power sharing arrangements. 

(i) End of Congress system- The defeat of the Congress Party in the election of 1989 marked the end of Congress dominance over the Indian party system. It could win only 197 seats in Lok Sabha.

(ii) Rise of Mandal Issue-The Mandal Issue started with the National Front Government’s decision to implement the recommendation of Mandal Commission that jobs in the Central government should be reserved for OBCs. This led to violent anti Mandal protests in different parts of the county.

(iii) New Economic Policy-This is known as the initiation of the structural adjustment programmes. Started by Rajiv Gandhi, these changes first become visible in 1991 and radically changed the direction that the Indian economy had pursued since independence .

(iv) Demolition of Babri Masjid or Ayodhya dispute- Ayodhya dispute started with the demolition of the disputed structure of Babri Masjid at Ayodhya in December 1992. This event symbolished and triggered various changes in politics of the country and intensified debate about the nature of Indian nationalism and secularism.

(v) Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi-The assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in May 1991 led to change in the leadership of the Congress. In the election of 1991, Congress emerged as the single largest party. The party chose P.V. Narsimha Raoas the Prime Minister of India .

1. In the initial years it was felt that linguistic states may foster seperatism and create pressures on newly founded nation, but India considered democracy and federalism by making a favor to linguistic states only. 
2. State Reorganization Commission was appointed in 1953 central Government to rearrange the boundaries of states. 
3. Its main recommendations were to organize states on language basis as well as the boundaries of states could reflect the linguistic aspects also. 
4. The State Reorganization Act was passed in 1956 which created 14 states and 6 union territories. 
5. Linguistic states enhanced democratic practices. 
6. Linguistic states reduced separatist attitude by accepting the regional and linguistic claims of all regions.