Magadha Empire :-

The formation of the largest state in India during this period was the work of several enterprising and ambitious rulers such as Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadma Nanda. They employed all the mean in their power, fair and foul, to enlarge their kingdoms and to strengthen their states. This, however, was not the only reason for the expansion of Magadhan kingdom.

Their were some other factors that enabled Magadha a powerful kingdom. These factors are as follows.

1) Magadha enjoyed an advantageous geographical position in the age of iron, because richest iron deposits were situated not far away from Rajgir, the earliest capital of Magadha. The ready availability of the rich iron ores in the neighbourhood enabled the Magadha princes to equip themselves with effective weapons which were not easily available to their rivals.

2) The two capitals of Magadha, the first at Rajgir and the second at Pataliputra, were situated at very strategic points. Rajgir was surrounded by a group of five hills, and so it was impregnable in those days when there was no easy means of storming citadels such as cannons. In the 5th century BC, the Magadhan Kings shifted their capital from Rajgir to Pataliputra, which occupied a pivotal position commanding communication on all the sides. Pataliputra was situated at confluence of the Ganges, the Gandak and the Son, and a fourth river called the Ghaghra, joined the Ganges not far from Pataliputra. 

3) In the pre-industrial days, when communication was difficult, the army could move north, west, south and east by following the courses of rivers.

4) Magadha was at the center of the mid-Gangetic plains, the Ganges provided a means of transport and agricultural facilities.

5) The favourable environmental factors that were conducive to agriculture helped Magadha to become a very powerful empire. The alluvium, once cleared of forests proved immensely fertile.

(i) The newspapers reported the discussions in the Constituent Assembly.
(ii) The press reported the reactions of the public to the discussions in the Assembly.
(iii) The press opened the opportunity to comment on different issues & published the public opinion.
(iv) Criticism and counter criticism in the press in turn shaped the nature of the discussions in the Assembly.
(v) In order to create a sense of collective participation the public was also asked to send in their views on what needed
to be done.

Some scholars see Partition as a culmination of a communal politics that started developing in the opening decades of the twentieth century.
(i) They suggest that separate electorates for Muslims, created by the colonial government in 1909 and expanded in 1919, crucially shaped the nature of communal politics.
(ii) This created a temptation for politicians working within this system to use sectarian slogans and gather a following by distributing favours to their own religious groups.
(iii) Religious identities thus acquired a functional use within a modern political system; and the logic of electoral politics deepened and hardened these identities. Community identities no longer indicated simple difference in faith and belief; they came to mean active opposition and hostility between communities.
(iv) During the 1920s and early 1930s tension grew around a number of issues. Muslims were angered by “music-before-mosque”, by the cow protection movement, and by the efforts of the Arya Samaj to bring back to the Hindu fold (shuddhi) those who had recently converted to Islam.

Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the first president (temporary chairman) of the Constituent Assembly when it met on December 9, 1946. Dr. Rajendra Prasad then became the President of the Constituent Assembly, and would later become the first President of India.

Shari’a is the Islamic law that is applied in a truly Islamic country. The Shari’a law owes its origin to the Holy book of Quran, Hadis (Law bookof Islam) and teachings of Prophet Muhammad.In the medieval ages the Islamic world witnesseda big social and religious movement called Sufi movement. Sufi movement was the people-centric and not God-centric. It believed serving people was the real form of worship. Sufi movement has had many branches too. One group of Sufi preachers took very radical path. They were mystics who renounced material worldtook to the life of asceticism. Further they also rejected the supremacy of the Shari’a laws. Such sufis were called be-shari‘a.

On the other hand , there were sufi saints who criticised the extravagant lifestyle of monarchs and Khaliphates but did not reject Shari’a laws. For them Shari’a laws were sacrosant. These Sufisaints have been called be-shari‘a.

Archaeologists reconstruct the past in the following manners:
(i) They excavate the ancient sites related with culture or civilisation. They find out remains from the site such as seal, material remains of houses, buildings, pots, ornaments, tools, coins, weights, measurements and toys etc.
(ii) Sometimes they find skull a, tones, teeth, jaws, and some articles kept with the bodies. Archaeologists take help of botanists, who are specialists in ancient plant remains. They also study the animal bones found at different sites with the help of zoologist.
(iii) Archaeologists try to identify the tools and implements used for cultivation and harvesting. They try to find out traces of means of irrigation such as wells, canals, tanks etc.
(iv) They used present day analogies to try and understand what ancient artefact were used for. Sometimes they compare the ancient findings with present day articles.
(v) Archaeologists observe the different layers of sites and try to find out different things which give pictures of socio-economic conditions, religions and cultural life of the past people in different times.
(vi) In order to identify centres of craft production, archaeologists usually look for the following: raw material such as stone needles, shells, copper ore; tools; unfinished objects; rejects and waste material. In fact, waste is one of the best indicators of craft work. For instance, if shell or stone is cut to make objects, then pieces of these materials will be discarded as waste at the place of production.
(vii) Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect evidence. For instance, though there are traces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find out about clothing we have to depend on indirect evidence including depictions in sculpture.

Relation between Sufi Saints and State :
(i)    Major characteristic of the Chishti community was its simple and disciplined life. They emphasised to remain away from the mundane authority. But it did not mean to keep aloof from the political power. The Chishtis accepted all the donations made by the royal rulers. However they themselves never demanded such gifts or donations. The Sultans gave khanqahs land in donation. Many trusts were set up regarding grants, gifts and donations.
(ii)    The Chishtis accepted donation both in cash and kind. But they never accumulated donations. They spent them on immediate requirements like food, clothes, living quarters and ritual necessities. It enhanced the moral authority of the Shaikhs who attracted people from all walks of life. They became very popular as they possessed piety, scholarship, miraculous powers and royal patronage. That is why, all the rulers tried to secure their support.
(iii)    The Sultans knew that most of their subjects did not follow Islam. So when the Turks set up the Delhi Sultanate, they rejected the wish of the ulama to impose Shariat as state law. They expected opposition from their subjects as majority of them were non-Muslims. They depended on the sufis who derived their authority directly from God. They did not depend on jurists to interpret the Shariat.
(iv) There are many examples of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis. Both wanted to assert their authority. Both emphasised the prostration and kissing of the feet. Because of the moral authority of the Chishtis, the kings often wanted their tombs to be in the vicinity of Rufi shrines. On the other hand, the sufi Shaikhs were also addressed with high-sounding titles. For example, the disciples of Nizamuddin Auliya.

Detailed and complete understanding on Non Cooperation Movement. Hope it helps !

The non-cooperation movement was launched on 1st August 1920 by the Indian National Congress (INC) under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. It signified a new chapter in the history of Indian freedom struggle.

Features of the non-cooperation movement

• The movement was essentially a peaceful and non-violent protest against the British government in India.
• Indians were asked to relinquish their titles and resign from nominated seats in the local bodies as a mark of protest.
• People were asked to resign from their government jobs.
• People were asked to withdraw their children from government-controlled or aided schools and colleges.
• People were asked to boycott foreign goods and use only Indian-made goods.
• People were asked to boycott the elections to the legislative councils.
• People were asked not to serve in the British army.
• It was also planned that if the above steps did not bring results, people would refuse to pay their taxes.
• The INC also demanded Swarajya or self-government.
• Only completely non-violent means would be employed to get the demands fulfilled.
• The non-cooperation movement was a decisive step in the independence movement because for the first time, the INC was ready to forego constitutional means to achieve self-rule.
• Gandhiji had assured that Swaraj would be achieved in a year if this movement was continued to completion.

Causes of the non-cooperation movement

• Resentment at the British after the war: Indians thought that in return for the extensive support of manpower and resources they had provided to Britain during the First World War, they would be rewarded by autonomy at the end of the war. But the Government of India Act passed in 1919 was dissatisfactory. In addition, the British also passed repressive acts like the Rowlatt Act which further angered many Indians who felt betrayed by the rulers despite their wartime support.
• Home Rule Movement: The Home Rule Movement started by Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak set the stage for the non-cooperation movement. The extremists and the moderates of the INC were united and the Lucknow Pact also saw solidarity between the Muslim League and the Congress Party. The return of the extremists gave the INC a militant character.
• Economic hardships due to World War I: India’s indirect participation in the war caused a lot of economic hardships to the people. Prices of goods began to soar which affected the common man. Peasants also suffered because the prices of agricultural products did not increase. All this led to resentment against the government.
• The Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre :The repressive Rowlatt Act and the brutal massacre at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar had a profound effect on the Indian leaders and the people. Their faith in the British system of justice was broken and the whole country rallied behind its leaders who were pitching for a more aggressive and firm stance against the government.
• The Khilafat Movement: During the First World War, Turkey, which was a German ally, had fought against the British. After Turkey’s defeat, the Ottoman caliphate was proposed to be dissolved. The Khilafat movement was launched by Muslims in India to persuade the British government not to abolish the caliphate. The leaders of this movement accepted the non-cooperation movement of Gandhiji and led a joint protest against the British.

Suspension of the non-cooperation movement

• Gandhiji called off the movement in February, 1922 in the wake of the Chauri Chaura incident.
• In Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, a violent mob set fire to a police station killing 22 policemen during a clash between the police and protesters of the movement.
• Gandhiji called off the movement saying people were not ready for revolt against the government through ahimsa. A lot of leaders like Motilal Nehru and C R Das were against the suspension of the movement only due to sporadic incidents of violence.

Results and significance of the non-cooperation movement

• Swaraj was not achieved in one year as Gandhiji had told.
• However, it was a truly mass movement where lakhs of Indians participated in the open protest against the government through peaceful means.
• It shook the British government who were stumped by the extent of the movement.
• It saw participation from both Hindus and Muslims thereby showcasing communal harmony in the country.
• This movement established the popularity of the Congress Party among the people.
• As a result of this movement, people became conscious of their political rights. They were not afraid of the government.
• Hordes of people thronged to jails willingly.
• The Indian merchants and mill owners enjoyed good profits during this period as a result of the boycott of British goods. Khadi was promoted.
• The import of sugar from Britain reduced considerably during this period.
• This movement also established Gandhiji as a leader of the masses.