(a) Many zamindaris were auctioned because the zamindars failed to pay the revenue demand on time. This was because the initial demands were very high.
(b) Moreover this high demand was imposed at a time when prices of agricultural produce were depressed making it difficult for the ryot to pay their duces to the zamindar.
(c) Thirdly revenue had to be paid punctually regardless of the harvest. According to the Sunset law if the zamindar did not pay by sunset of the specified date his estate was likely to be auctioned.
(d) Initially the Permanent Settlement limited the power of the zamindar to exploit the peasantry and also reduced his powers. His troops were disbanded, custom duties were abolished and their power to meet out local justice was curbed.
(e) This made it difficult for him to assert his power over the peasants and jotedars to ensure timely payment. Rent collection remained a perennial problem. Sometimes the ryots and jotedars deliberately delayed payment to get the zamindar into trouble. This delayed the zamindar’s payment to the state and often led to his zamindari being auctioned.

Magadha Empire :-

The formation of the largest state in India during this period was the work of several enterprising and ambitious rulers such as Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadma Nanda. They employed all the mean in their power, fair and foul, to enlarge their kingdoms and to strengthen their states. This, however, was not the only reason for the expansion of Magadhan kingdom.

Their were some other factors that enabled Magadha a powerful kingdom. These factors are as follows.

1) Magadha enjoyed an advantageous geographical position in the age of iron, because richest iron deposits were situated not far away from Rajgir, the earliest capital of Magadha. The ready availability of the rich iron ores in the neighbourhood enabled the Magadha princes to equip themselves with effective weapons which were not easily available to their rivals.

2) The two capitals of Magadha, the first at Rajgir and the second at Pataliputra, were situated at very strategic points. Rajgir was surrounded by a group of five hills, and so it was impregnable in those days when there was no easy means of storming citadels such as cannons. In the 5th century BC, the Magadhan Kings shifted their capital from Rajgir to Pataliputra, which occupied a pivotal position commanding communication on all the sides. Pataliputra was situated at confluence of the Ganges, the Gandak and the Son, and a fourth river called the Ghaghra, joined the Ganges not far from Pataliputra. 

3) In the pre-industrial days, when communication was difficult, the army could move north, west, south and east by following the courses of rivers.

4) Magadha was at the center of the mid-Gangetic plains, the Ganges provided a means of transport and agricultural facilities.

5) The favourable environmental factors that were conducive to agriculture helped Magadha to become a very powerful empire. The alluvium, once cleared of forests proved immensely fertile.

(i) The newspapers reported the discussions in the Constituent Assembly.
(ii) The press reported the reactions of the public to the discussions in the Assembly.
(iii) The press opened the opportunity to comment on different issues & published the public opinion.
(iv) Criticism and counter criticism in the press in turn shaped the nature of the discussions in the Assembly.
(v) In order to create a sense of collective participation the public was also asked to send in their views on what needed
to be done.

Some scholars see Partition as a culmination of a communal politics that started developing in the opening decades of the twentieth century.
(i) They suggest that separate electorates for Muslims, created by the colonial government in 1909 and expanded in 1919, crucially shaped the nature of communal politics.
(ii) This created a temptation for politicians working within this system to use sectarian slogans and gather a following by distributing favours to their own religious groups.
(iii) Religious identities thus acquired a functional use within a modern political system; and the logic of electoral politics deepened and hardened these identities. Community identities no longer indicated simple difference in faith and belief; they came to mean active opposition and hostility between communities.
(iv) During the 1920s and early 1930s tension grew around a number of issues. Muslims were angered by “music-before-mosque”, by the cow protection movement, and by the efforts of the Arya Samaj to bring back to the Hindu fold (shuddhi) those who had recently converted to Islam.

Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the first president (temporary chairman) of the Constituent Assembly when it met on December 9, 1946. Dr. Rajendra Prasad then became the President of the Constituent Assembly, and would later become the first President of India.

Shari’a is the Islamic law that is applied in a truly Islamic country. The Shari’a law owes its origin to the Holy book of Quran, Hadis (Law bookof Islam) and teachings of Prophet Muhammad.In the medieval ages the Islamic world witnesseda big social and religious movement called Sufi movement. Sufi movement was the people-centric and not God-centric. It believed serving people was the real form of worship. Sufi movement has had many branches too. One group of Sufi preachers took very radical path. They were mystics who renounced material worldtook to the life of asceticism. Further they also rejected the supremacy of the Shari’a laws. Such sufis were called be-shari‘a.

On the other hand , there were sufi saints who criticised the extravagant lifestyle of monarchs and Khaliphates but did not reject Shari’a laws. For them Shari’a laws were sacrosant. These Sufisaints have been called be-shari‘a.

Archaeologists reconstruct the past in the following manners:
(i) They excavate the ancient sites related with culture or civilisation. They find out remains from the site such as seal, material remains of houses, buildings, pots, ornaments, tools, coins, weights, measurements and toys etc.
(ii) Sometimes they find skull a, tones, teeth, jaws, and some articles kept with the bodies. Archaeologists take help of botanists, who are specialists in ancient plant remains. They also study the animal bones found at different sites with the help of zoologist.
(iii) Archaeologists try to identify the tools and implements used for cultivation and harvesting. They try to find out traces of means of irrigation such as wells, canals, tanks etc.
(iv) They used present day analogies to try and understand what ancient artefact were used for. Sometimes they compare the ancient findings with present day articles.
(v) Archaeologists observe the different layers of sites and try to find out different things which give pictures of socio-economic conditions, religions and cultural life of the past people in different times.
(vi) In order to identify centres of craft production, archaeologists usually look for the following: raw material such as stone needles, shells, copper ore; tools; unfinished objects; rejects and waste material. In fact, waste is one of the best indicators of craft work. For instance, if shell or stone is cut to make objects, then pieces of these materials will be discarded as waste at the place of production.
(vii) Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect evidence. For instance, though there are traces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find out about clothing we have to depend on indirect evidence including depictions in sculpture.

Relation between Sufi Saints and State :
(i)    Major characteristic of the Chishti community was its simple and disciplined life. They emphasised to remain away from the mundane authority. But it did not mean to keep aloof from the political power. The Chishtis accepted all the donations made by the royal rulers. However they themselves never demanded such gifts or donations. The Sultans gave khanqahs land in donation. Many trusts were set up regarding grants, gifts and donations.
(ii)    The Chishtis accepted donation both in cash and kind. But they never accumulated donations. They spent them on immediate requirements like food, clothes, living quarters and ritual necessities. It enhanced the moral authority of the Shaikhs who attracted people from all walks of life. They became very popular as they possessed piety, scholarship, miraculous powers and royal patronage. That is why, all the rulers tried to secure their support.
(iii)    The Sultans knew that most of their subjects did not follow Islam. So when the Turks set up the Delhi Sultanate, they rejected the wish of the ulama to impose Shariat as state law. They expected opposition from their subjects as majority of them were non-Muslims. They depended on the sufis who derived their authority directly from God. They did not depend on jurists to interpret the Shariat.
(iv) There are many examples of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis. Both wanted to assert their authority. Both emphasised the prostration and kissing of the feet. Because of the moral authority of the Chishtis, the kings often wanted their tombs to be in the vicinity of Rufi shrines. On the other hand, the sufi Shaikhs were also addressed with high-sounding titles. For example, the disciples of Nizamuddin Auliya.