Archaeologists reconstruct the past by a study of the artefacts which they unearth such as seals, coins, remains of buildings, clay, pots or burnt grains. Archaeologist reconstruct the past in the following ways:

• Archaeologists excavate the ancient sites. They try to find about the life of the people by studying various unearthed artefacts such as remains of houses, pots, jewellery, coins, agricultural tools, weighs etc.
• Zooarchaeologists study the animal bones and try to find out if these animals were domesticated. For example, Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig. It show us that the Harappans were aware of these animal.
• Archaeologists try to find about the prevalence of agriculture by finding the remains of burnt grains. Some ways by which they try to find about the agricultural practices is by studying seals and terracotta sculptures. For example, representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing.
• Archaeologists also try to find about social or economic differences amongst people in the past by studying burial sites. When graves contain pottery and ornaments, it indicate that people during that time believed in afterlife.
• Archaeologists try to look for raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore; tools; unfinished objects; rejects and waste materials to identify the centres of craft production.
• Religious beliefs of the people can be reconstructed based on the study of seals and coins. In the Harappan Civilisation, some seals depicted rituals while some seals had plat motifs on them indicating nature worship.

The Indus Valley civilisation is also known as the Harappan civilisation because the first site of the archaeological remains of the Indus Valley civilisation was found at the modern site of Harappa, West Punjab, Pakistan.

Saddle Quern is stone tools used for grinding varieties of material with ones hand. It is produced by rocking or rolling the handstone using parallel motions (i.e., pushing and pulling the handstone), which forms a shape looking like a saddle. They were roughly made of hard, gritty, igneous rock or sandstone and mostly show signs of hard usage. As their bases are usually convex, they must have been set in the earth or in mud to prevent their rocking. 

Ibn Battuta found cities in the subcontinent full of exciting, opportunities for those who had the necessary drive, resources and skills. They were densely populated and prosperous, except for the occasional disruptions caused by wars and invasions. The bazaars were not only places of economic transactions, but also the hub of social and cultural activities.

The main features of Mauryan administration were:

• There were five important political centres in the Mauryan Empire: Patliputra (the capital city) and the provincial centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri.
• It was not possible for such a large empire to have a uniform administrative system so historians believe that the administrative control was perhaps strongest in the capital and in provincial centres.
• Communications along the land and riverine routes were developed to administer the Empire.
• The army was an important tool for not only extending the territories of the empire but also for administering them.
• Committees and sub-committees were formed for coordinating military activities. They looked after the navy, horses, chariots, elephants, recruiting soldiers and managing transport and food supplies for soldiers.
• Asoka held his Empire together by propagating the doctrine of Dhamma, whose principles were simple and universally applicable. The doctrine propagated the ideas of peace, non-violence and respect towards elders. Dhamma mahamattas were appointed to spread the principles of Dhamma.

The last feature of the Mauryan administration is evident in the Asokan inscriptions that we have studied. It is because Ashoka inscribed the main features of his policy of 'dhamma'. According to the inscriptions, he had also appointed Special officers called Dhamma Mahamtras to spread Dhamma. 

(a) Fortification : (i) The different parts of the city of Vijayanagara were enclosed with the great fortress walls. There were seven lines of forts. These encircled not only the city of Vijayanagara but also its agricultural land and forests. The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city. This wall was built with wedge shaped blocks of stone. They fixed well into each other and had no use of mortar or cementing agent. The inner portion of the walls was of earth packed with rubble.
(ii) This fortification enclosed agricultural tracts like cultivated fields, gardens and forests. The modern archaeologists have found an evidence of an agricultural tract between the sacred centre and the urban core. To irrigate this tract, there was an elaborate canal system which drew water from the Tungabhadra. The agricultural tracts were incorporated within the fortified area with a purpose. In the medieval periods, sieges were laid to starve the defenders into submission. These sieges could last even for months and years. So the rulers built large granaries within fortified areas. So the rulers of Vijayanagara adopted an elaborate strategy to protect their agricultural belt.
(iii) However a second line of fortification surrounded the inner core of the urban complex. A third line of fortification went round the royal centre. There were well guarded gates to enter the fort. These gates led to the major roads. They had distinctive architectural features. There was an arch on the gateway and a dome over the gate.
(b) Roads : The roads linked different parts of the city of Vijayanagara. They also led out of the city. They went through the whole valley. They avoided rocky terrain. Many important roads started from temple gateways. They were lined by bazaars.

(i) The Harappans was planned cities. Most cities were divided into two parts. The upper part (Citadel) and lower part (Lower Town).
(ii) Streets of the cities cut each other at right angles. The cities had proper town-planning of houses, roads, drains etc.