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Yogita Ingle 4 years, 11 months ago
Kings often rewarded the Brahmanas by giving them grants of land. These grants were recorded on copper plates which were given to those who received the land.
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Yogita Ingle 4 years, 11 months ago
In the 6th century BC, very big states were established in north India. They were called Mahajanapadas. They were sixteen in number.
Important Mahajanapadas: (i) Megadha (ii) Koshala (iii) Kuru (iv) Avanti (v) Panchala (vi) Vajji (vii) Gandhara.
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Yogita Ingle 4 years, 11 months ago
(a) Fortification : (i) The different parts of the city of Vijayanagara were enclosed with the great fortress walls. There were seven lines of forts. These encircled not only the city of Vijayanagara but also its agricultural land and forests. The outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city. This wall was built with wedge shaped blocks of stone. They fixed well into each other and had no use of mortar or cementing agent. The inner portion of the walls was of earth packed with rubble.
(ii) This fortification enclosed agricultural tracts like cultivated fields, gardens and forests. The modern archaeologists have found an evidence of an agricultural tract between the sacred centre and the urban core. To irrigate this tract, there was an elaborate canal system which drew water from the Tungabhadra. The agricultural tracts were incorporated within the fortified area with a purpose. In the medieval periods, sieges were laid to starve the defenders into submission. These sieges could last even for months and years. So the rulers built large granaries within fortified areas. So the rulers of Vijayanagara adopted an elaborate strategy to protect their agricultural belt.
(iii) However a second line of fortification surrounded the inner core of the urban complex. A third line of fortification went round the royal centre. There were well guarded gates to enter the fort. These gates led to the major roads. They had distinctive architectural features. There was an arch on the gateway and a dome over the gate.
(b) Roads : The roads linked different parts of the city of Vijayanagara. They also led out of the city. They went through the whole valley. They avoided rocky terrain. Many important roads started from temple gateways. They were lined by bazaars.
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Yogita Ingle 4 years, 11 months ago
While so many zamindars were facing a crisis in end of the 18th century (during the British East India Company), the group of rich peasants were consolidating their position in villages known as jotedars. In the report of survey conducted by Francis Buchanan we come to know about the Dinazpur District of North Bengal. In this report we get a detailed description of jotedars.
Position as a landholder : By the early 19th century the rich class peasants or jotedars had acquired vastarea of land sometimes as much as several thousand acres.
As a trader and moneylender : The position of the jotedars should not big estimated only by huge areas of the land. They had establish their control on local trade as well as money lending business. They use to exercise immense power over the poorer cultivators of the region.
A large part of land of the jotedars was cultivated through share-croppers (they were called adhiars or bargadars) who brought their own plough, laboured in the field and handed over half the produce to jotedars after harvest.
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Krishna Yadav 4 years, 11 months ago
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