The nationalism that Gandhi stood for, which informed India’s anti-colonial struggle, differed fundamentally from the nationalism that came into vogue in Europe in the 17th century, following the Westphalian peace treaties. At least three differences stood out.

Akbar was one of the mighty and powerful rulers of the Mughal dynasty. He was known for remunerating ability, devotion, and judgment, paying little mind to the ethnic foundation or religious practice. He was born as Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad and took the title ‘Akbar’ which means great. He never renounced Islam but talked about synthesis of different religious principles.  He introduced a number of military reforms like Mansabdari system accompanied by innovations in cannons, fortifications, and the use of elephants to consolidated Mughal rule in the Indian subcontinent. He also introduced a new fair system of taxation which was based on the estimation crop yield.

The Non-cooperation movement was launched on 5th September, 1920 by Mahatma Gandhi with the aim of self-governance and obtaining full independence as the Indian National Congress (INC) withdraw its support for British reforms following the Rowlatt Act of 21 March 1919, and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 13 April 1919 .

• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and Resultant Punjab Disturbances.
• Dissatisfaction with Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms.
• Rowlatt Act.
• Khilafat Agitation.

The inscriptions found in the central and eastern part of India were written in Magadhi Prakrit using the Brahmi script, while Prakrit using the Kharoshthi script, Greek and Aramaic were used in the northwest. These edicts were deciphered by British archaeologist and historian James Prinsep. In terms of India, the inscriptions of Ashoka are the first proof of usage of any script i.e. Brahmi and it is here that the script of Ashoka (Dhammlipi) bears significance. Brahmi is generally believed to be attested from the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka, who used the script for imperial edicts.

Familial ties are generally regarded as natural and based on blood. However we find that even that is not universal in its nature because in certain part of India we find that cousins which are considered as kin are not considered so and people marry among cousins.

Buildings of Sanchi are the most wonderful ancient buildings in the state of Bhopal. - Buddhist, Jain and Brahamanical text, monument and inscription are the some of the important historical sources of the age of 600 BCE - 600 CE.

• Archaeologists use the term “culture” for a group of objects, distinctive in style, that are usually found together within a specific geographical area and period of time.
• In the case of the Harappan culture, these distinctive objects include seals, beads, weights, stone blades and even baked bricks.
• These objects were found from areas as far apart as Afghanistan, Jammu, Baluchistan (Pakistan) and Gujarat
• Harappa was  the first site where this unique culture was discovered
• The civilisation is dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BCE.

Religious beliefs of the people of Indus Valley Civilisation:

• Seals form an important source of information about the religious life of the Harappans. Apart from the discovery of fire altar from Kalibangan, no cult objects, temples or places of worship have been found.
• From the seals which have been discovered , it has been concluded that religion during the Harappan times bore traces of later Hinduism as images of pashupati , goddess and sacred trees and animals have been discovered.
• In one of the figures, a plant is shown as growing out of a woman’s body. Historians believe it to be Mother Earth, who was also worshipped in Middle East and Europe.
• No place of worship such as temples were found in any of the cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

1. CITADEL:

• The citadel owes its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms.
• It was walled which meant that it was physically separated from the lower town.
• The citadel has imp. buildings such as- the warehouse, the great bath, the assembly hall and workshop.

There are many reasons put forth by the scholars regarding end of the Harappan civilization:

(i) Climatic change,  Deforestation,  Excessive Flood, Drying up of rivers,  Earthquake, Landslide etc. These reasons could explain end of one or two settlements. Hoever it cannot explain the end of whole civilization.

(ii) some scholars believes that it was the invasion of Aryan that lead to the end of Harappan civilization. As there are mentions in Rigveda how Lord Indra also known as Puramdar or the "destroyer of fort"has destroyed forts. R E M Wheeler believes that it is not possible such civilization could just vanish unless it was destoyed and was taken over by a new one. There also was evidence of large number of skeleton to prove the point. However this argument has been refuted and no longer holds true.

(iii) Other scholars believe that it was due to the end of one unifying element, it could be state or a ruler. Because after 1800 BCE we find that there are sudden disappearance of seals, weights and other uniform productions. Which scholars believe could be possible if there was an unifying element because such uniformity in size, weights etc could not coincident.

• Gotra: From c. 1000 BCE, people (especially Brahmanas) were classified into different gotras. Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer, and all those who belonged to the same gotra were regarded as his descendants.
• Two important rules of gotras are: Women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage and members of the same gotra could not marry.

• The Indus Valley Civilization was established around 3300 BC. It flourished between 2600 BC and 1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization). It started declining around 1900 BC and disappeared around 1400 BC.
• This is also called Harappan Civilization after the first city to be excavated, Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan).
• Pre-Harappan civilization has been found at Mehrgarh, Pakistan which shows the first evidence of cotton cultivation.
• Geographically, this civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh. It extended from Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East; and from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South. Some Indus Valley sites have also been found in as far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.
• In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda (Gujarat), Banawali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab). In Pakistan: Harappa (on river Ravi), Mohenjodaro (on Indus River in Sindh), Chanhudaro (in Sindh).
• The civilization was first discovered during an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921–22 at Harappa following the discovery of seals by J Fleet.
• Harappan ruins were discovered by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats.
• Mohenjodaro ruins were excavated for the first time by R.D. Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay and Marshall.
• The Indus Valley cities show a level of sophistication and advancement not seen in other contemporary civilizations.
• Most cities had similar patterns. There were two parts: a citadel and the lower town.
• Most cities had a Great Bath.