The Ain-i-Akbari or the "Administration of Akbar", is a 16th-century detailed document recording the administration of the Mughal Empire under Emperor Akbar, written by his court historian, Abu'l Fazl in the Persian language. It forms Volume III and the final part of the much larger document, the Akbarnama (Account of Akbar), also by Abu'l-Fazl, and is itself in three volumes.

According to Jainism, salvation is possible only after death while according to Buddhism it is possible during one's own life if one is able to detach oneself completely from the worldly existence. Thus, while Jainism describes Nirvana as freedom from body. While Jainism and Buddhism are completely different religions, they do share many similarities in their beliefs and practices. Both religions believe in reincarnation, which is the rebirth of the soul in a new body after the death of the previous body.

The East India Company subdued their authority and restrict their autonomy. The zamindars troops were disbanded, customs duties abolished and their 'cutcheries' (courts) brought under the supervision of a collector appointed by the company. Zamindars lost its power to organize local justice and the local police. The zamindars adopted various means and measures to establish their control over their zamindaris. These are as under: (i) They adopted the strategy of fictitious sale of land. ... (ii) They created hurdles in the possession of the land if anyone from outside the zamindari bought an estate at an auction.

Turkish was the mother tongue of Mughals, but it was Akbar who made Persian the leading language of Mughal court. Persian became Indianised by absorbing local idioms. Urdu sprang from the interaction of Persian with Hindavi. All books in Mughal India were handwritten manuscripts and were kept in Kitabkhana 

1. Undoubtedly, the heart of the Mughal Empire was its capital city, where the court assembled. During the 16^th and 17^th centuries the capital cities of the Mughals usually shifted e.g., Babur took over Agra by his court was frequently on the move.
2. Akbar decided to build a new capital at Fatehpur Sikri in the 1570s. However, in 1585 the Mughal Capital was transferred to Lahore. Its main purpose was to bring the north-west under control.
3. Shah Jahan moved the court, army and household from Agra to Shahjahanabad in 1648.
   Shah Jahan followed sound fiscal policies and accumulated sufficient money for building activities,
4. Shahjahanabad was a new addition to the old residential city of Delhi. It had the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Chandni Chowk and spacious homes for the nobility.

Chola bronze art is the most sought-after today in the world of art. Period: 10th – 12th century CE. Exquisite pieces of art developed during this period. This technique is still practised in south India, particularly in Kumbakonam.

(i)    Mughal government was a monarchy. The emperor was all-in-all having all executive, legislature and judiciary powers in himself. He was chief commander of the forces. The position of all ministers were just the government officials of the present day government.

(ii)    Though empire was divided in certain provinces, parganas, districts and villages, yet the all governors were appointed by emperor himself.

(iii) The change of the government was not done by the people as it is done by voters today.

Generally succession was either decided by the emperor or the major courtiers or on the basis of sword of might. The Mughal rulers saw themselves as appointed by Divine will. Now-a-days after every five year or even earlier the head of the state i.e. the president or the head of real administration or government is change by the public through ballot. During the Mughal period sometime throne was smashed by force. The example is of Shershah, who has defeated Humayun and force him leave Hindustan. After the gap of fifteen years he defeated the successor of Shershah and again got his throne. The authority of Akbar, Jahangir and even Shah Jahan was challenged by their own sons or blood relations.

Kshatriya (from Sanskrit kṣatra, "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of Hindu society, associated with warriorhood. The Sanskrit term kṣatriyaḥ is used in the context of Vedic society wherein members were organised into four classes: brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra. The administrative machinery in the Vedic India was headed by a tribal king called Rajan whose position was not hereditary. The king was elected in a tribal assembly (called Samiti) which included women. The Rajan protected the tribe and cattle; was assisted by a priest; and did not maintain a standing army, though in the later period the rulership appears to have risen as a class. The concept of the fourfold varna system is not yet recorded

From the early centuries, the grants of land were recorded in inscriptions. Some inscriptions were recorded in copper plates. The records that have survived, give us the following facts:

• The land grants were given to religious institutions or to Brahmanas. The Brahmanas were usually exempted from paying land revenue and other due to the king. The Brahmanas were . often given the right to collect these
  dues from the local people.
• Women were not supposed to have independent access to resources like land. But aristocrat women like Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II had access to lands.
• All the people in rural areas had to obey the new land of the village and pay him all the taxes.
• Some historians claim that land grants were indicative of weakening political power, as kings were loosing control over their samantas. Sometimes, kings tried to win allies by making grants of land.
• Land grants provide some insight into the relationship between cultivators and the state.
• The system of trade from 600 BCE to 600 CE can be explained in the following ways:
  • Land and river routes criss-crossed the sub-continent and extended in different directions from the 6th century BCE. The ruler tried to control these routes by offering protection for a price.
  • These different routes were transversed by the peddlers who travelled on foot. But the merchants travelled with caravans of bullock carts and pack-animals.
  • There were seafearers. Their ventures
    were risky but highly profitable.
  • Successful merchants, designated as Manattuvan in Tamil and Setthis and Satavahanas in Prakrit w’ere very rich.
  • A wide range of goods were carried from one place to another. These were salt, grain, cloth, metal ores and finished products, stone, timber, medicinal plants, spices and pepper and textiles. All these were transported across the Arabian sea to the Mediterranean.

The rules about the gotra are as follows:

Women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt their husband’s gotra on marriage.
Members of the same gotra could not marry.

Inscriptions are the engravings on solid objects such as metal and stone tablets, rocks, pillars etc. Such inscriptions provide historians and historiographers with invaluable data about rulers, the extent of their empires, major events, political conditions, religious and cultural practices etc. They mention the places where the events took place and sometimes discuss their causes and effects. Statements about events are made in future tense, although they were recorded much after the happening of the events. Thus inscriptions and coins become very important to reconstruct early Indian history.

Key concepts in nutshell

• Buildings of Sanchi Kannakkheda are the most wonderful ancient buildings in the state of Bhopal.
• Buddhist, Jaina and Brahamanical text, monument and inscription are the some of the important historical sources of the age of C 600 BCE-600CE, which help in reconstructing Indian history.
• Many was provided by rulers of Bhopal, Shahjahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum to preserved the ancient sites.
• The Rigveda is a collection of hymns, praise of many deities like Agni, Indra, Soma etc.
• The basic philosophy of Jainism already existed in north India even before the birth of vardhamana Mahavira.
• Tha Bhuddha was the most influential teachers of his times.
• Two traditions were including in modern Hinduism – Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

• The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish and meat, wheat, maize, millets, pulses, rice and another eatables.
• Cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig were domesticated by the Harappans for their sustenance.
• The evidence of wild species like boar, deer and gharial have also been traced from the remains of bones, but it is not sure whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from other hunting community.
• Archaeological evidences suggested that oxen were used for ploughing and two different crops were grown together. As most of the sites are located in semi-arid lands, it is evident that water from canals and wells was used for irrigation.

Archaeologists

Archaeologists have been able to reconstruct dietary practices of the Harappan society from finds of charred grains and seeds. Archaeo-botanists are specialists who study ancient plant remains. Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame, rice and millets.

Rumors and prophesies played a part in moving people to action:

(i) They told that bullets coated with the fat of cows & pigs and that biting those bullets would corrupt their caste and religion. They were referring to the cartridges of the Enfield rifles which had just been given to them.

(ii) The rumours said, the British had mixed the bone dust of cows and pigs into the flour that was sold in the market. In towns and cantontments, sepoys and the common people refused to touch the atta.

(iii) There was fear and suspicion that the British wanted to convert Indians to Christianity.

(iv) The response to the call for action was reinforced by the prophecy that British rule would come to an end on the centenary of the Battle of Plassey, on 23 June 1857.

फिफ्थ रिपोर्ट 1813 में ब्रिटिश संसद को प्रस्तुत की गई थी। ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी के कामकाज के बारे में रिपोर्टों की श्रृंखला में इसे पांचवीं रिपोर्ट कहा गया था। पांचवीं रिपोर्ट का मुख्य मुद्दा ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी का प्रशासन और गतिविधियाँ था। इस रिपोर्ट में 1002 पृष्ठ थे। लगभग 800 पृष्ठ परिशिष्टों के रूप में थे जिनमें ज़मींदारों और दंगों की याचिकाएं, कलेक्टरों की रिपोर्ट, राजस्व रिटर्न पर सांख्यिकीय तालिका और बंगाल और मद्रास के राजस्व और न्यायिक प्रशासन पर आधिकारिक नोट शामिल थे।

रिपोर्ट के उद्देश्य: भारत में ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी के कामकाज से ब्रिटेन के कई लोग खुश नहीं थे। उन्होंने भारत और चीन के साथ व्यापार को लेकर ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी द्वारा प्राप्त एकाधिकार का विरोध किया। कई ब्रिटिश व्यापारी भारत में कंपनी के व्यापार में हिस्सेदारी चाहते थे। उन्होंने इस बात पर जोर दिया कि भारतीय बाजार को ब्रिटिश मैन्युफैक्चरर्स के लिए खोला जाना चाहिए। कई राजनीतिक समूहों ने यह भी तर्क दिया कि बंगाल की विजय से केवल ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी को फायदा हुआ, न कि ब्रिटिश राष्ट्र को। उन्होंने ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी द्वारा कुशासन और कुप्रवृत्ति पर प्रकाश डाला। परिणामस्वरूप, ब्रिटिश संसद ने 18 वीं शताब्दी के अंत में भारत में ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी के शासन को विनियमित करने और नियंत्रित करने के लिए कई अधिनियम पारित किए।

इसने कंपनी को भारत में अपनी प्रशासनिक गतिविधियों पर नियमित रिपोर्ट प्रस्तुत करने के लिए भी कहा। पांचवीं रिपोर्ट एक ऐसी रिपोर्ट थी। इसका चयन समिति द्वारा किया गया था। यह भारत में कंपनी के शासन की प्रकृति से चिंतित था। इसमें भारत में ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी के शासन के खिलाफ एक अमूल्य सबूत था। यह 18 वीं शताब्दी के अंत में ग्रामीण बंगाल में दयनीय स्थिति को सामने लाता है।

We call Mahabharata as dynamic text because of following reasons:
1. The growth of the Mahabharata did not stop with the Sanskrit version
.2. Over the centuries, versions of the epic were written in a variety of languages through an ongoing process of dialogue between peoples, communities, and those who wrote the texts.
3. Several stories that originated in specific regions or circulated amongst certain people found their way into the epic.
4. The central story of the epic was often retold in different ways.

5. Episodes were depicted in sculpture and painting. They also provided themes for a wide range of performing arts - plays, dance and other kinds of narrations.

Nationalism holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-determination), that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity and that the nation is the only rightful source of political power (popular sovereignty). The Nationalist Movement is a Mississippi-founded white nationalist organization with headquarters in Georgia that advocates what it calls a "pro-majority" position. It has been called white supremacist by the Associated Press and Anti-Defamation League, among others.

India is a sovereign nation because it is free from any kind or form of foreign interference or internal pressures in its domestic affairs.

India is a secular nation. This is because the state has no official religion. Citizens are free to profess, propagate or practice any religion.

The constitution is a fundamental law of a country that reflects the fundamental principles on which the government of the country is based. In this article, learn some of the interesting features of the Indian Constitution.

• The bulkiest constitution of the world: The Indian constitution is one of the bulkiest constitutions of the world, comprising of 395 articles, 22 parts, and 12 schedules. So far the constitution underwent 100 amendments (28 May, 2015).
• Rigidity and flexibility: The Indian constitution is a combination of rigidity and flexibility, which means some parts of it can be amended by the Parliament by a simple majority, whereas some parts require a two-third majority as well as not less than one-half of the state legislatures.

1) Federalism

This refers to the existence of more than one level of government in the country. In India, we have governments at the state level, at the centre and Panchayati Raj at the village level. The Constitution contains lists that detail the issues that each tier of government can make laws on. In addition, the Constitution also specifies where each tier of government can get the money from, for the work that it does. All persons in India are governed by laws and policies made by each of these levels of government.

2) Parliamentary Form of Government

The people of India have a direct role in electing their representatives. Also, every citizen of the country, irrespective of his/her social background, can contest in elections.

3) Separation of Powers

There are 3 organs of government:

1. The legislature: refers to elected representatives by the people.
2. The executive: is a smaller group of people who are responsible for implementing laws and running the government.
3. The judiciary: refers to the system of courts in India.

Each organ mentioned above acts as a check on the other organs of government. This ensures the balance of power between all three.

Dr. B. R Ambedkar's role and contribution to the making of the Indian Consitution is certainly significant. On 15th August 1947, when India achieved its independence, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru made Dr. Ambedkar country's first Law Minister, in recognition of his legal prowess and also, in fact, made him the Chairman of the Indian Constitution Drafting Committee which was a singular honor, and of course, his primary important contribution to this document its actual drafting and structuring, which is no small thin