Mahatma Gandhi is perhaps the most widely recognized figure of the Indian Nationalist Movement for his role in leading non-violent civil uprisings. He first employed the non-violent approach in South Africa where he was serving as an expatriate lawyer. MAHATMA GANDHI (1869–1948) Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi is widely recognized as one of the twentieth century's greatest political and spiritual leaders. Honored in India as the father of the nation, he pioneered and practiced the principle of Satyagraha—resistance to tyranny through mass nonviolent civil disobedience. Gandhiji believed that multiplication of mills could not solve the problem of cloth supply; therefore he stressed the development of Khadi industry. For Gandhiji, khadi was the “symbol of unity of Indian humanity of its economic freedom and equality”.

‘Mughals transmitted their grand vision through the writing of dynastic histories.’’ This statement is explained below:

 

1. Each manuscript contained an average of 120 full or double-page paintings of Battles, Court scenes, construction of buildings and hunts.

 

2. The chronicle is based on many sources including actual records of the events, official documents and oral testimony of knowledgeable people.

 

3. The political significant events were recorded over time.

 

4. It gave a chronological picture of all the aspects of the Akbar's Empire including geographical, cultural, social and administrative aspects.

 

5. Abul Fazal gave a lot of importance to diction and rhythm in his works.

 

6. A detailed description of Akbar's life could be obtained by Akbar Nama.

 

7. Badshah Nama was also written which was a similar tale of Akbar's reign by Abdul Hamid Lahori.

 

8. The 3 volumes were later revised by Shah Jahan's Wazir Sadulla Khan.

The teachings of Buddha are as follows:

• The world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing. It is also soulless as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it.
• Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence.
• By following the path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence, human beings can use above these worldly pleasures.
• He advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical. Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin.
• He emphasised individual agency and righteous action as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation and nibbana (literally means the extinguishing of ego and desire).
  This ends the cycle of suffering for those who renounced the world.
• The words to his followers were “Be lamps into yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation.”

Vithalla temple of Vijayanagara was considered unique and

interesting due to the following reasons:

 

6. The principal deity in the Vitthala temple was Vitthala- a form of Vishnu.

 

. It had many halls and a shrine designed in the form of a chariot.

 

. It had chariot streets that extended from the temple gopurams in a straight line.

 

. The streets had stone slabs and lines with a pillared pavilion in which the merchants set up their shops.

 

. The rulers of Vijayanagar drew on different traditions to create an empirical culture.

• In the sixth century BCE exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of coinage.
• Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper were amongst the earliest to be minted and used.
• The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who established control over the north-western part of the subcontinent c. second century BCE.
• The first gold coins were issued c. first century CE by the Kushanas.
• Hoards of Roman coins have been found from archaeological sites in south India.
• Coins were also issued by tribal republics such as that of the Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana.
• Archaeologists have unearthed several thousand copper coins issued by the Yaudheyas, pointing to the latter’s interest and participation in economic exchanges.
• Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers.

The battle between the hoe and the plough was a long one:

i. The British wanted to bring more land under cultivation for increasing agricultural produce and revenue.They failed to convince the Paharias to practice settled
agriculture.

ii. Hill folk in the Rajmahal hills were known as Paharias. They depended on forest produce and shifting cultivation or their living and grew a variety of pulses and millets for consumption.

iii. The British gave land to Santhals (Damin-i-koh) to settle in cultivate. The Santhals cleared land and converted it into cultivable land.

iv. Santhals displaced the Paharias. They practiced plough agriculture and ploughed land to grow rice and cotton.

The Bhakti movement was led by Alvars and Nayanars. Alvars are those who worshipped lord Vishnu and Nayanars are those who claimed to be the followers of Lord Shiva. They extensively travelled singing devotional song in the name of their gods. These sects gave a blow to the caste system and Brahmanism by their beliefs and practices.

BHAKTI AND THE STATE

 

1. In the 6^th century BCE, there evolved a new form of worship in South India – the bhakti movement. They Focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva and Vishnu and were known as Alvars and Nayanars.

 

2. The Bhakti Saints in their compositions opposed Jainisim and Buddhism; As a result, some of the rulers of Southern kingdoms like the Cholas, who supported the earlier Brahmanical traditions, supported Bhakti traditions.

 

3. They made land grants.

 

4. Some of the most magnificent temples were constructed under the patronage of the Chola rulers at Chidambaram, Tanjavur, and Gangaikondacholapuram.

 

5. Bronze sculpture of Shiva, one of the finest specimens of Indian art was also made during this period.

 

6. The Chola kings in order to claim divine support, built temples adored with the image of the Saints.

 

7. The kings also introduced the singing of Tamil Shiva hymns in temples under royal patronage and took the initiative to collect and organise them into a text.

 

8. The Chola ruler, Parantaka I had consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar (Bhakti Saints) in a Shiva temple.

 

Since both Alvars and Nayanass were revered by rich Vellala peasants and common people as well, so the Chola rulers tried to claim divine status.

Composition of Constituent Assembly

• Initially, the number of members was 389. After partition, some of the members went to Pakistan and the number came down to 299. Out of this, 229 were from the British provinces and 70 were nominated from the princely states.
• Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the first temporary chairman of the Constituent Assembly. Later, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President and its Vice President was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee. BN Rau was the constitutional advisor.

Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat),

While most Harappan settlements have a small high
western part and a larger lower eastern section, there
are variations. At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal
(Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, and
sections within the town were also separated by walls.
 

Tipitaka literally means three baskets to hold different types of texts. The main features of it are: The Vinaya Pitaka included rules and regulations for those who joined the Sangha or monastic order. The Sutta Pitaka included the teachings of the Buddha. The Abhidhamma Pitaka dealt with philosophical matters. Each pitaka comprised a number of texts. According to Buddhist philosophy the world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing. The world is soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it. Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence. It is by following the path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence, the human beings can rise above these worldly troubles. The Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin. Therefore, he advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical.

Tipitaka literally means three baskets to hold different types of texts.
The main features of it are:

• The Vinaya Pitaka included rules and regulations for those who joined the Sangha or monastic order.
• The Sutta Pitaka included the teachings of the Buddha.
• The Abhidhamma Pitaka dealt with philosophical matters. Each pitaka comprised a number of texts.
• According to Buddhist philosophy the world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing. The world is soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it.
• Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence. It is by following the path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence, the human beings can rise above these worldly troubles.
• The Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin. Therefore, he advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical.

The ideal occupation of kshatriya are:

(i) Kshatriyas were expected to engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice.

(ii) They were expected to study the Vedas, get sacrifices peformed and give gifts.

• Baba Guru Nanak emphasised the importance of the worship of one God.
• He insisted that caste, creed or gender was irrelevant for attaining liberation. His idea of liberation was based on the pursuit of active life with a strong sense of social commitment.
• He used the terms nam, dan and isnan for the essence of his teaching, which actually meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct.
• He gave importance to right-belief and worship, honest living and helping others.

Guru Nanak, thus, promoted the idea of equality.

Slavery in India was an established institution in ancient India by the start of the common era, or likely earlier. However, its study in ancient times is problematic and contested because it depends on the translations of terms such as dasa and dasyu. Slavery was banned in the Mauryan Empire.

Slavery in India escalated during the Muslim domination of northern India after the 11th-century after Muslim rulers re-introduced slavery to the Indian subcontinent. It became a predominant social institution with the enslavement of Hindus, along with the use of slaves in armies for conquest, a long-standing practice within Muslim kingdoms at the time. According to Muslim historians of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire era, after the invasions of Hindu kingdoms Indians were taken as slaves, with many exported to Central Asia and West Asia. Many slaves from the Horn of Africa were also imported into the Indian subcontinent to serve in the households of the powerful or the Muslim armies of the Deccan Sultanates and the Mughal Empire

• It is 700 verse Hindu scripture in Sanskrit that is part of Hindu epic Mahabharata.
• It is set in narrative framework of dialogue between Pandava prince Arjuna and his guide and charioteer Lord Krishna.
• The Bhagavad Gita presents a synthesis of the concept of Dharma, theistic bhakti, yogic ideals of moksha through jnana, bhakti, karma, and Raja Yoga and Samkhya philosophy.

Jagannatha

This was the best example of regional cultures growing around religious traditions. Jagannatha which literally translates to ‘the lord of the world’ is a name for Vishnu. This cult is found in Puri, Orissa. Till date, the local tribals make the wooden image of the deity, which suggests that the deity was originally a local god which was later identified with Vishnu.

i. The physical arrangement of the court focused on the sovereign, mirrored his status as the heart of society. 

ii. The throne gave physical form to the function of the sovereign as axis mundi. 

iii. The canopy was believed, to separate the radiance of the sun from that of the sovereign. 

iv. In court, status was determined by spatial proximity to the king. 

v. The place accorded, to a courtier by the ruler was a sign of his importance in the eyes of the emperor. 

vi. Once the emperor sat on the throne no one was permitted to move vii. After spending an hour at the jharoka, the emperor walked to the public hall of audience (diwan-i am) toconduct the primary business of his government. 

viii. State officials presented reports and made requests. 

ix. diwan-i khas to hold private audiences and discuss confidential matters. High ministers of state placed their petitions before him 

x. Occasionally, the emperor viewed the works of highly reputed artists or building plans of architects 

xi. Id, Shab-i barat and Holi  the court was full of life. Perfumed candles set in rich holders and palace walls.

The various forms that the Non-Cooperation Movement took in different parts of India are discussed below:

(i)In Kheda, Gujarat, Patidar peasants were worried about the high land revenue demand of the British. 

(ii)In coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were picketed. In the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, tribals and poor peasants started several ‘forest satyagrahas’, sometimes sending their cattle into forests without paying grazing tax. They were very much fed up with the restrictions imposed on them by the British regarding the use of forest resources. They wanted the abolition of the forest regulations.

(iii)In Sind, now in Pakistan, Muslim traders and peasants were very enthusiastic about the Khilafat call. In Bengal too, the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance gave enormous communal unity and strength to the national movement.

(iv)In Punjab, the Akali agitation of the Sikhs sought to drive out corrupt mahants, supported by the British, from the gurudwaras. This movement got closely identified with the Non-Cooperation Movement.

(v)In Assam, tea garden labourers, shouted “Gandhi Maharaj ki Jai”, demanded a big increase in their wages. They left the British-owned plantations amidst declarations that they were following Gandhiji’s wish. Interestingly, in the Assamese Vaishnava songs of the period the reference to Krishna was substituted by “Gandhi Raja”.

People understood Gandhiji as a kind of messiah, as someone who could help them overcome their misery and poverty. Gandhiji wished to build class unity, not class conflict, yet peasants could imagine that he would help them in their fight against zamindars, and agricultural labourers believed he would provide them land.

The kings of the Vedic times performed the following two Yajnas or sacrifices:

(i) RajsuyaYajna

(ii) Ashwamedha Yajna.

Detailed ecplanation

Rajasuya Vedic sacrifies was a royal conservation ceremony. It was a yajna or sacrifice performed by the ancient kings of India who considered themselves powerful enough to be an emperor. Rajasuya, like the ashwamedha would occur after the return of generals of the king from a successful military campaign.After conquering the kings of other kingdoms and collecting tribute from them, the general would invite the vanquished kings to attend the sacrifice ceremony. All the vanquished kings would in effect consider the performer of these sacrifices as an emperor.In case of rajasuya there is no horse involved. The generals plan their route themselves.

Varna' is a division of society based on occupation while 'Jati' is a division that was not restricted to only caste or 'varna' system. It is a division based on birth units of Hindu society. There are only four varnas but there are thousand of jatis.

Gandhiji believed that any struggle can be successful only when masses will support it. For participating in any movement masses must known the aim of movement. In India through local languages or mother tongue, communication with public could be done easily. So, Gandhiji advised nationalist to use mother tongue.

In addition, he believed that masses will felt more connected to movement when there will be communication in mother tongue. Gandhiji believed that mother tongue will play an adhesive role in dividing society and will help in bringing masses at single platform. Englishmen during these years believed that their language is superior than other language. Use of Indian language for communication by every Indian will change this notion and alongwith this, it will boost confidence in Indian citizen that their language has its own importance. Therefore, considering all above factors Gandhiji stressed on use of mother tongue.

By enclosing the agricultural land within the fortified area of the city, the king of Vijayanagara empire gave protection to their subject. Because at the times of war enemies would not easily penetrate into the fortified walls and also not to cause any harm to the cultivable land. Thus, the situation of starvation or famine in the city can be minimized at the times of difficulty.

The Ain-i-Akbari or the "Administration of Akbar", is a 16th-century detailed document recording the administration of the Mughal Empire under Emperor Akbar, written by his court historian, Abu'l Fazl in the Persian language. It forms Volume III and the final part of the much larger document, the Akbarnama (Account of Akbar), also by Abu'l-Fazl, and is itself in three volumes.

According to Jainism, salvation is possible only after death while according to Buddhism it is possible during one's own life if one is able to detach oneself completely from the worldly existence. Thus, while Jainism describes Nirvana as freedom from body. While Jainism and Buddhism are completely different religions, they do share many similarities in their beliefs and practices. Both religions believe in reincarnation, which is the rebirth of the soul in a new body after the death of the previous body.

According to Jainism, salvation is possible only after death while according to Buddhism it is possible during one's own life if one is able to detach oneself completely from the worldly existence. Thus, while Jainism describes Nirvana as freedom from body. While Jainism and Buddhism are completely different religions, they do share many similarities in their beliefs and practices. Both religions believe in reincarnation, which is the rebirth of the soul in a new body after the death of the previous body.

The East India Company subdued their authority and restrict their autonomy. The zamindars troops were disbanded, customs duties abolished and their 'cutcheries' (courts) brought under the supervision of a collector appointed by the company. Zamindars lost its power to organize local justice and the local police. The zamindars adopted various means and measures to establish their control over their zamindaris. These are as under: (i) They adopted the strategy of fictitious sale of land. ... (ii) They created hurdles in the possession of the land if anyone from outside the zamindari bought an estate at an auction.

Turkish was the mother tongue of Mughals, but it was Akbar who made Persian the leading language of Mughal court. Persian became Indianised by absorbing local idioms. Urdu sprang from the interaction of Persian with Hindavi. All books in Mughal India were handwritten manuscripts and were kept in Kitabkhana 

1. Undoubtedly, the heart of the Mughal Empire was its capital city, where the court assembled. During the 16^th and 17^th centuries the capital cities of the Mughals usually shifted e.g., Babur took over Agra by his court was frequently on the move.
2. Akbar decided to build a new capital at Fatehpur Sikri in the 1570s. However, in 1585 the Mughal Capital was transferred to Lahore. Its main purpose was to bring the north-west under control.
3. Shah Jahan moved the court, army and household from Agra to Shahjahanabad in 1648.
   Shah Jahan followed sound fiscal policies and accumulated sufficient money for building activities,
4. Shahjahanabad was a new addition to the old residential city of Delhi. It had the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Chandni Chowk and spacious homes for the nobility.

Because of Battle of Talikota...Alliance of Deccan Sultanate and other dyansties attacked Vijayanagar and destroyed most of their building but Vijayanagar Dynasty survived even after war....There were too many places that was really safe and results bulidings yet survived.

Thanks

Chola bronze art is the most sought-after today in the world of art. Period: 10th – 12th century CE. Exquisite pieces of art developed during this period. This technique is still practised in south India, particularly in Kumbakonam.