This is a type of agriculture which involves growing and processing of a single cash crop purely meant for sale. Rubber, tea, coffee, spices, coconut and fruits are some of the important crops which come under the category of plantation agriculture.  Countries that have plantation agriculture usually experience tropical climate with high annual temperatures and receive high annual rainfall.

Rabi season:

• Crops sown in winters and harvested in summers.
• Some of the important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard.
• States growing rabi crops are: Punjab, Haryana, Himachal, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh.

Kharif season:

• Crops grown with the onset of monsoons and harvested in September or October.
• Important Kharif growing states are: Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra.
• Crops grown during this season are: rice, maize, jowar, bajra, tur, moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean.

Zaid season:

• It falls in between the rabi and kharif seasons.
• It’s a short season during the summer months.
• Major crops grown are: watermelon, muskmelon, cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops.

Raising of livestock, particularly poultry and cattle rearing, with heavy capital and specialisation is called factory farming.

OR

A system of rearing livestock using highly intensive methods, by which poultry, pigs, or cattle are confined indoors under strictly controlled conditions.

Slums are residential areas of the least choice, dilapidated houses. There are several problems in the slums areas.
 

(i) These are inhabited by those people who were forced to migrate from the rural areas to these urban centres in search of livelihood but could not afford proper housing due to high rent and high costs of land.

(ii) Poor hygienic conditions are found in such areas.

(iii) Lack of basic amenities: Slums are not provided by the basic amenities such as drinking water, sanitation and other facilities like light and toilet

(iv) Poor ventilation: The houses are so compact that there is no facilities of fresh air and ventilation.

(v) Transportation: These areas are so congested that transport facilities cannot be provided.

These areas are also lack of parks, schools and other urban facilities.

The term, ‘population composition’, refers to the distinguishing attributes of population of a country such as occupation, education, life-expectancy, age, ***, place of residence, etc. The important features of composition of population include *** ratio, density of population, literacy rates, age-*** pyramid, occupational structure, life-expectancy and educational attainments. Females have a biological advantage over males as they tend to be more resilient than males. Yet this advantage is cancelled out by many social discriminations and disadvantages that they face. On an average world *** ratio is in favour of males. It is 990 females per thousand males. The highest *** ratio in the world has been recorded in Latvia which is 1187 females per 1000 males. The lowest *** ratio is found in UAE where it is 468 females per 1000 males.The *** ratio is favourable for females in 139 countries of the world and unfavourable for them in 72 countries of the world. In Asia due to socio-economic condition of women the number of females is less per thousand males but in Europe some countries including Russia exhibit male minority. It is because of better status of women and an excessively male-dominated out-migration to different parts of the world. Age structure represents the number of people of different age groups. It can help us to know the number of working population and dependent population.Population pyramid is constructed to know the features of population which is called age *** pyramid. This pyramid has two parts. The left side of the pyramid shows the percentage of males in the population while the, right side shows the percentage of females in each age group. In many of the developed countries of the world, population in the higher age group has increased because of increase in life-expectancy and decline in birth rate.It is also important to know rural-urban composition because the age-*** pyramid, occupational structure, density of population and level of social and economic development vary between rural and urban areas. The criterion to distinguish rural population from urban population is different in different countries. But the most common is the occupational structure. Those areas where people are occupied in primary activities are called rural areas and areas where majority is engaged in secondary and tertiary activities is called urban area.The rural-urban *** composition differences in Canada and West European countries like Finland are just opposite of African and Asian countries like Zimbabwe and Nepal. In western countries the number of males is more than females in rural areas but it is opposite in India, Nepal and Pakistan. The excess of females in urban areas of the USA, Canada and Europe is found because of migration from rural areas for better opportunities.In these countries farming is a major occupation which is so mechanised that males can handle it better. Due to shortage of housing, high cost of living, lack of employment opportunities, lack of security in urban areas in developing countries women do not migrate to urban areas. Proportion of literate population of a nation indicates its socio-economic development as it shows standard of living, social status of women, government policies and availability of educational facilities.

A n s w e r :

Growth

1. Growth is quantitative.
2. Increase in a country's real level of national output which can be caused by an increase in the quality of resources.
3. Economic Growth can be measured by an increase in a country's gross domestic product.

Development

1. Development is quantitative and qualitative
2. Increase in living standards
3. Leads to the creation of more opportunities in the sectors of education, healthcare, employment

On the basis of residence the world population can be classified into two groups:
(i) Rural population
(ii) Urban population

Naturalisation of Humans: In context of naturalisation of humans the following example has been taken: There was a man called Benda who lived in the wilds of the Abujh Maad area of central India. His village consisted of three huts deep in the wilds. Not even birds or stray dogs that usually crowded villages could be seen in these areas. Wearing a small loin cloth and armed with his axe he slowly surveyed the penda where his tribe practiced a primitive form of agriculture called shifting cultivation. Benda and his friends burnt small patches of forest to clear them for cultivation. The ash was used for making the soil fertile. Benda used to feel lucky to be born in such beautiful natural surroundings. When he used to take palmful of water, he remembered to thank Loi-Lugi, the spirit of the forest for allowing him to quench his thirst. He chewed on succulent leaves and roots. The boys used to collect Gajjhara and Kuchla, from the forest. These are special plants that Benda and his people used. He hoped the spirit of the forest would be kind and lead him to these herbs. These are needed to barter in the Madhai or tribal fair coming up the next full moon. He closed his eyes and tried hard to recall what the elders had taught him about these herbs and the places they were found in. He wished he had listened more carefully. Suddenly there was a rustling of leaves. Benda and his friends knew it is the outsiders who had come searching for them in the wilds. In a single fluid motion Benda and his friends disappeared behind the thick canopy of trees and became one with the spirit of the forest.
Humanisation of Nature: In this context the following example has been takens. Winters in the town of Trondheim meant fierce winds and heavy snow. The skies were dark for months. Kari used to drive to work in the dark at 8 am. She had special tyres for the winter and kept the headlights of her powerful car switched on. Her office was artificially heated at a comfortable 23 degrees Celsius. The campus of the university she worked in was built under a huge glass dome. This dome kept the snow out in winter and let in the sunshine in the summer. The temperature was controlled carefully and there was adequate lighting. Even though fresh vegetables and plants didn’t grow in such a harsh weather, Kari kept an orchid on her desk and enjoyed eating tropical fruits like banana and kiwi. These were flown in from warmer areas regularly. With a click of the mouse, Kari could network with colleagues in New Delhi. She frequently took a morning flight to London and returned in the evening in time to watch her favourite television serial. Though Kari was fifty-eight years old, she looked fitter and younger than many thirty-years-old people

Human geography attempts to explain the relationship between all elements of human life and the space they occur over. In this way human geography assumes a highly interdisciplinary nature.

It develops close interface with other sister disciplines in social sciences in order to understand and explain human elements on the surface of the earth.

Human beings were able to develop proper technology using his knowledge and intelligence. It has taken man a long time to reach at the present level of technology.

The concept of environmental determinism explains that human is a passive agent, influenced by the environmental factors that are physical factors like climate, flora, fauna, etc which determine the attitude of decision-making and lifestyle of human beings. When technology was not well developed, humans were afraid of nature’s fury and worshipped it.
For instance, the Eskimos of Tundra adapted to the extremely cold climate. This type of interaction was between primitive human society and nature. At the time, forces of nature were stronger and humans struggled to survive in that environment. This gave rise to the term environmental determinism.

The theory of neo-determinism was developed by Griffith Taylor, which is a mid way between the two theories of determinism and possibilism. It means that human beings can conquer nature by obeying it. 

The concept shows that neither there is a situation of absolute necessity nor there is a condition of

absolute freedom. Humans can conquer nature by obeying them. Possibilities can be created within the limits which do not damage the environment. The new concept of Griffith Taylor in the field of Human geography reflects a middle path between two ideas of environmental determinism and possibilism.

 Answer:

Areas where density of population is very low:

• Hot Deserts — Sahara, Kalahari, Atacama and West Australia.
• Extremely Cold Areas—Northern Part of Canada, Greenland and Northern Part of Siberia.
• Cold Deserts — Areas of Central Asia.
• Equatorial Region — Amazon basin of South America and Zaire basin of Africa.

Fertile plains with favorable climate and highly industrialized and urbanized areas are densely populated. There are four areas where density is more than 200 persons per sq. km. They are:

• East Asia (China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan).
• South and .South-east Asia (India, Indonesia, Bangladesh and Pakistan).
• North-West Europe (UK, France and Germany).
• The Northeastern Coast of North America.

Malthus examined the relationship between population growth and resources in one of his works. He then proposed the Malthusian theory of population where he said that the population grows exponentially and the food supply grows arithmetically and that a balance between the two can be established through positive and preventive checks..

The Malthusian theory explained that the human population grows more rapidly than the food supply until famines, war or disease reduces the population. He believed that the human population has risen over the past three centuries.

Impact of Population Change

High increase in population leads to problems like depletion of natural resources, unemployment and scarcity. Decline in population indicates that resources are insufficient to maintain a population

small increase is beneficial for a growing economy. But growth beyond the carrying capacity of land create problems. Resource depletion is the most serious of all the problems.Population decline also indicate that the resources are insufficient to support the population of an area which it had done earlier.

How did science and technology help in population growth?
Answer:
Steam engine replaced human and animal energy and also provided mechanized energy from other sources and helped in increasing agricultural and industrial production. Improvement in medical facilities, inoculation against epidemics and sanitation helped in the decline of death rate.

Distinguish between place of origin and place of destination.
Answer:
Migration may be explained as a spontaneous effort to achieve a better balance between resources and population. When people move from one place to another, the place they move from is called the place of origin and the place they move to is called the place of destination

Answer:
Human geography is the synthetic study of relationship between human societies and earth’s surface. Human geography is the study of changing relationship between the un-resting man and the unstable earth.

subfields of Human Geography are:

• Urban Geography
• Political Geography
• Settlement Geography
• Economic Geography
• Social Geography
• Population Geography

A consumer co-operative store is owned, managed and

operated by the consumers themselves. It is organised and incorporated as an association under the Co operative Societies Act. Its membership is voluntary and its capital is provided by the consumers by becoming shareholders. The store purchases goods in bulk directly from the manufacturers or wholesalers and sells them to its members at reasonable prices. The aim of the store is not maximise profits but to render service to the members.

(1) Departmental stores delegate the responsibility and authority to departmental heads for purchasing of commodities and for overseeing the sale in different sections of the stores.

(ii) Chain stores are able to purchase merchandise most economically, often going so far as to direct the goods to be manufactured to their specification. They employ highly skilled specialists in many executive tasks. They have the ability to experiment in one store and apply the results to many. By doing so, they spread risk over many locations. Advertising and sales promotion is more economic.

White collar work: professional, managerial or administrative work

Blue: Manual labour

Pink: Work mainly dealt with customer interaction, entertainment, sales, or other service-oriented work

Gold: highly paid skills of senior business executives, government officials, research scientists, financial and legal consultants, etc.

 Red: Government workers of all typesGrey: occasionally used to describe elderly individuals working beyond the age of retirement as well as those occupations incorporating elements of both blue- and white-collar work.

Orange: Prison labourers 

Yellow: People in the creative field but they may spend time doing both white and blue collar works

 Black: workers in the mining or the oil industry.

Green: Worker who are employed in the environmental sectors of the economy. 

1. The population is unevenly distributed. The areas of different types of low density are as under:
   1. Difficult terrains and mountains: The areas including mountain ranges with steep slopes, rugged topography have the harsh climate do not attract population. Rocky surface, no soil and other problems also make them the regions of a very low density of population.
   2. Hot deserts: These are Sahara, Kalahari, Thar, etc. where a low density of population is found because of scanty rainfall and very hot days. These factors do not attract people to settle there. The density of the population is less than 10 people/sq. km.
   3. Cold deserts: These include the dry areas of Central Asia, Magnolia, and areas of Iran that have a low density of population. The extreme climate with scanty rainfall and hard life restricted population. In these areas, the average density is between 0-3 persons/sq. km.
   4. Extremely cold and polar areas: In high latitudes around polar regions where snow and ice cover ground for the largest part of the year. Antarctica, a polar continent is total without any permanent inhabitant and the Tundra region around the North Pole have the negligible density of population.
   5. Dense forest areas: Equatorial forests of Amazon and Zaire restrict people to settle therein. Extreme heat and humidity, marshy land surface and various diseases are the main obstacles for the people to settle there.

Characteristics of the last stage of Demographic Transition Theory are as follows:

1. In this stage both fertility and mortality decline.
2. The population is either stable or grows slowly and economic conditions become strong.
3. The population becomes urbanised, literate and has high technical know-how. Women’s Status and education is found higher in comparison to other stages.

In 1901 11% of India’s population was living in urban areas, while in 2011 it increased to 31%. Decennial growth rate was highest in decade of 1971 and 1981 at 46%. The growth rate has now come down to 31%. The rate of urbanization came down during the decade of 1951 to 1961 and again started rising and the decennial growth was highest in 1971-1981 decade, possibly due to development in agriculture and industrial sector and better economic conditions of our country.

The size of settlement ranges from a hamlet in rural areas to metropolitan cities.

Detailed Expl:

Settlements vary in size and type. They range from a hamlet to metropolitan cities. With size, the economic character and social structure of settlements changes and so do its ecology and technology. Settlements could be small and sparsely spaced; they may also be large and closely spaced. The sparsely located small settlements are called villages, specialising in agriculture or other primary activities. On the other hand, there are fewer but larger settlements which are termed as urban settlements specialising in secondary and tertiary activities.

1. Human development is necessary because of the following reasons:
   1. The human development approach focuses on improving the lives of people rather than assuming that economic growth will lead automatically to greater opportunities for all.
   2. Human development is about giving people more freedom and opportunities to live lives they value, e.g. educating people, especially girls.
   3. Human Development creates the right conditions for all. For eg. create environmental sustainability or equality between men and women. Once, the basics of human development are achieved, they open up opportunities for progress in other aspects of life.
   4. It also helps to create awareness among people towards their responsibilities as a citizen and human being to build up an opinion for the reduction in the military expenditure, demobilization of armed forces, disarmament and all those activities which are responsible for civil disturbances.

(i)This approach looks at human beings as beneficiaries or targets of all development activities.
(ii)The approach argues for higher government expenditure on education, health, social secondary and amenities. People are not participants in development but only passive recipients.
(iii)The government is responsible for increasing levels of human development by maximising expenditure on welfare.

The distribution of population in the world is uneven. Some areas are very crowded while some are sparsely populated. There are various reasons behind uneven distribution:

Geographical factors: Favorable topography, availability of mineral and freshwater resources, favorable climate and soil fertility are some of the reasons affecting population distribution. Indo-Gangetic Plains, Diamond Mines of South Africa, etc, are densely populated.

Social and cultural factors: Areas of better housing, education and health facilities are more populated. Places of religious and cultural significance also attract people e.g., Varanasi, Jerusalem, etc.

Economic factors: Places having more industries, transportation and communication facilities provide better employment opportunities. People are attracted to these places because of these reasons, e.g., Mumbai, Osaka etc.